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THE 
GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 


PREPARED  AND   ISSUED   UNDER    THE 
AUSPICES   OF  THE   DIVISION   OF 
GEOLOGY    AND    GEOGRAPHY 
NATIONAL  RESEARCH   COUNCIL 


THE 

GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

A  PRESENTATION  OF  SOME  ASPECTS 

OF   EUROPEAN  GEOGRAPHY  FOR  THE 

USE  OF  MEMBERS  OF  THE  STUDENTS' 

ARMY  TRAINING  CORPS 


Edited  by 

ELLSWORTH  HUNTINGTON 

and 

HERBERT  E.  GREGORY 


PREPARED  AND  ISSUED  UNDER  THE  AUSPICES  OF  THE 
DIVISION  OF  GEOLOGY  AND  GEOGRAPHY 

NATIONAL  RESEARCH  COUNCIL 

'1 


NEW  HAVEN 

YALE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

MDCCCCXVIII 


in 


Copyright,  1918,  by 
YALE    UNIVERSITY    PRESS 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Foreword 7 

Essential  books 9 

Part  I.     Europe  as  a  whole 11 

Introduction    11 

Main  physical  features  14 

The  position  of  Europe  14 

The  relief  of  Europe  15 

The  climate  of  Europe    16 

The  relation  of  Europe  to  the  sea   17 

The  natural  regions  of  Europe 19 

The  meaning  of  natural  regions 19 

Divisions  on  the  basis  of  position     19 

Divisions  on  the  basis  of  relief   19 

Divisions  on  the  basis  of  climate    20 

The  description  of  the  natural  regions  of  Europe 21 

The  northwestern  highland   21 

The  western  lowland 23 

The  eastern  plains 25 

The  southeastern  basins  26 

The  central  mountains   27 

Switzerland  as  a  problem 27 

The  southern  peninsulas    -29 

Peoples  and  countries 31 

The  relation  of  physical  features  to  distribution  of  races. .  31 

The  relation  of  physical  features  to  political  divisions 32 

The  effect  of  boundaries  on  international  relations 34 

Occupations  and  Industries 35 

Agriculture  in  Europe   35 

3 


c-  o  fer  o  n  a 


4  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction    35 

French  agriculture  as  a  type 36 

Physical  conditions  of  French  agriculture 36 

The  French  peasants 37 

Agriculture  outside  of  France 37 

The  food  of  nations  (table) 38 

Forestry  in  Europe 39 

General  relations   39 

The  forests  of  Sweden 40 

Mineral  resources  of  Europe 41 

Resources  of  individual  countries 41 

Mineral  production  of  Europe  in  1913  (table) 45 

European  mineral  localities  46 

Manufacturing  in  Europe 47 

European  transportation 49 

Part  II.     The  countries  of  Europe 53 

The  British  Isles 58 

The  insularity  of  Britain 52 

England — the  leader  in  the  world's  commerce 54 

Manufacturing  industries  and  trade 55 

General  statement 55 

Imports  and  exports 56 

Importance  of  cotton  manufacturing 57 

England's  merchant  marine 58 

France    58 

Effect  of  the  double  sea  front 58 

Expression  of  artistic  temperament 60 

Germany    62 

Scientific  agriculture  62 

Relation  of  mineral  deposits  to  industry  and  technical  edu- 
cation      64 

Belgium 65 

Effect  of  location  on  war  and  on  commerce 65 

The  Netherlands 68 


CONTENTS  5 

PAGE 

Commerce  and  colonies  in  relation  to  climate  and  position . .  68 

Denmark    72 

Norway  and  Sweden 73 

The  relation  of  diverse  physical  conditions  of  adjoining  coun- 
tries to  industries  and  politics 73 

Physical  features   73 

Climate    74 

Minerals    75 

Forestry     75 

Fisheries 76 

Commerce   76 

Austria  and  Hungary 77 

Diversity  of  relief  in  relation  to   diversity  of  people  and 

interests     77 

Russia    80 

The  influence  of  isolation  and  monotony  on  habits  and  char- 
acter     80 

The  resources  of  Russia  in  relation  to  other  countries 84 

Italy   87 

Contrast  between  north  and  south  Italy 87 

Turkey     88 

Constantinople  and  the  Straits  as  a  geographic  and  political 

problem    88 

The  Balkans  90 

Spain 92 

The  influence  of  the  peninsular  position  of  Spain 92 

The  influence  of  a  high  plateau 93 

Reference  books   96 


FOREWORD 

The  Committee  on  Education  and  Special  Training  of  the  War  De- 
partment has  included  geography  in  the  curriculum  arranged  for  the 
Students'  Army  Training  Corps  and  has  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  branch  of  the  science  which  contributes  most  directly  to  present 
needs  is  the  Geography  of  Europe.  On  reviewing  the  field,  the  Com- 
mittee found  that  provision  for  geographic  instruction  was  lacking  in 
most  educational  institutions,  and  that  courses  in  the  Geography  of 
Europe  had  been  organized  in  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  colleges 
and  universities  enrolling  Students'  Army  Training  Corps.  Available 
text  books,  maps,  and  other  apparatus  for  teaching  also  were  found 
to  be  deficient  in  quantity  and  unsatisfactory  in  quality.  Under  such 
circumstances  it  is  obvious  that  no  large  amount  of  satisfactory  geo- 
graphic instruction  can  be  given  during  the  present  year  nor  in  later 
years  until  strong  departments  of  geography  are  established  at  many 
institutions.  It  is,  however,  highly  desirable  that  information  regard- 
ing the  physical  geography  of  Europe  and  the  industries  and  manner 
of  life  of  the  people  be  presented  in  some  form  to  prospective  officers, 
and  as  a  means  to  this  end  this  course  in  the  Geography  of  Europe  has 
been  prepared  under  the  auspices  of  the  National  Research  Council. 

This  book  is  largely  the  result  of  contributions  from  a  group  of  men 
in  active  Government  service.  In  the  brief  time  available,  manuscript 
has  been  furnished  by  the  following: 

Herbert  Bassett,  War  Trade  Board,  professor  of  geography,  Normal 
School,  Macomb,  111.; 

N.  A.  Bengston,  War  Trade  Board,  professor  of  geography  and  con- 
servation. University  of  Nebraska; 

C.  E.  Bonnett,  War  Trade  Board,  professor  of  economics.  University 
of  New  Mexico; 

A.  P.  Brigham,  professor  of  geology  and  geography,  Colgate 
University ; 

C.  C.  Colby,  United  States  Shipping  Board,  assistant  professor  of 
geography.  University  of  Chicago; 

S.  W.  Gushing,  captain.  United  States.  Army,  professor  of 
geography,  Salem  Normal  School; 

7 


Leon  Dominian,  American  Geographical  Society; 

V.  C.  Finch,  United  States  Shipping  Board,  associate  professor  of 
geography,  University  of  Wisconsin; 

Herbert  E.  Gregory,  National  Research  Council,  professor  of 
geology,  Yale  University; 

W.  H,  Haas,  United  States  Shipping  Board,  assistant  professor  of 
geography.  Northwestern  University; 

Ellsworth  Huntington,  captain.  United  States  Army,  research  asso- 
ciate in  geography,  Yale  University; 

G.  R.  Mansfield,  geologist.  United  States  Geological  Survey; 

E.  B.  Mathews,  professor  of  geology,  Johns  Hopkins  University; 

C.  J.  Posey,  War  Trade  Board,  assistant  professor  of  geography. 
University  of  Minnesota; 

A.  L.  Pugh,  War  Trade  Board,  chairman,  department  of  economics. 
High  School  of  Commerce,  New  York  City; 

J.  R.  Rich,  captain.  United  States  Army,  professor  of  geography, 
University  of  Illinois; 

G.  B.  Roorbach,  United  States  Shipping  Board,  assistant  professor 
of  geography,  University  of  Pennsylvania; 

J.  Russell  Smith,  War  Trade  Board,  professor  of  industry,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania; 

R.  H.  Whitbeck,  War  Trade  Board,  professor  of  geography,  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin ; 

F.  E,  Williams,  captain,  United  States  Army,  assistant  professor  of 
geography.  University  of  Wisconsin. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  pamphlet  the  limitations  of  time  and  the 
exigencies  of  war  work  have  made  it  impossible  to  follow  out  a  thor- 
oughly logical  and  well-rounded  plan.  The  aim  has  been  to  put  to- 
gether material  which  if  studied  systematically  will  yield  a  fairly 
satisfactory  picture  of  the  geographic  conditions  of  Europe.  The 
book  will  have  served  its  purpose  if  it  increases  the  efficiency  of  Ameri- 
can soldiers  even  to  a  small  degree. 

The  method  adopted  assumes  that  the  student  will  work  out  the 
outlined  problems  under  the  teacher's  guidance  and  that  the  teacher 
will  supplement  and  otherwise  modify  the  text  in  accordance  with  his 
interests  and  facilities  for  instruction.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  prob- 
lems are  so  arranged  that  they  may  be  expanded  or  contracted,  and 
that  they  may  serve  as  guides  in  the  preparation  of  lectures  as  well 
as  material  for  classroom  exercises. 

It  is  planned  to  issue  a  revised  and  enlarged  edition,  and  teachers 


FOREWORD  9 

and  other  readers  are  invited  to  collaborate  by  offering  suggestions  for 
improvement.  Communications  may  be  addressed  to  Professor  Herbert 
E.  Gregory,  Yale  University,  New  Haven,  Conn. 

National  Research  Council, 

Division  of  Geology  and  Geography, 
October  lo,  1918 


Essential  Books 
In  teaching  the  course  as  outlined,  the  following  books  are  essential, 
and  it  is  assumed  that  the  classroom  will  be  supplied  with  a  sufficient 
number  of  each  to  permit  many  students  to  work  at  one  time : 

1.  A  physical  atlas  showing  physical,  climatic,  political  features. 
The  following  are  recommended:  Longmans'  New  Atlas,  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.,  New  York;  Bartholomew's  Atlas  of  Economic  Geog- 
raphy, Oxford  University  Press ;  Bartholomew's  Atlas ;  Phillip's  Atlas. 

2.  An  encyclopedia,  such  as  the  International  or  the  Britannica. 

3.  Mill's  International  Geography,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 

4.  The  Atlas  of  World  Agriculture,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture 

5.  The  World  Almanac,  or  similar  handbook. 

6.  The  Statesman's  Yearbook. 

A  selected  list  of  books  for  supplementary  reading  will  be  found  on 
page  96. 

A  list  of  lantern  slides  suitable  for  this  course  may  be  obtained  from 
the  National  Research  Council,  1023  Sixteenth  Street,  Washington, 
D.  C. 


PART  I 

EUROPE  AS  A  WHOLE 
Introduction 

The  most  remarkable  characteristic  of  Europe  is  its  enormous  influ- 
ence upon  the  rest  of  the  world — its  power  of  leadership.  The  term 
"European"  is  almost  synonymous  with  "civilized."  For  instance,  in 
the  Orient  the  term  European  is  applied  to  Americans,  Canadians, 
Australians,  and  any  others  who  appear  to  be  highly  civilized.  Ameri- 
cans who  have  long  resided  in  China  often  call  themselves  part  of  the 
European  community.  When  we  wish  to  indicate  that  Japan  is  differ- 
ent from  most  oriental  countries,  we  say  that  it  is  European  in  its 
spirit.  Again,  a  native  of  the  Tropics  with  some  education  is  often 
described  as  a  man  with  a  veneer  of  European  polish  but  at  heart  a 
true  son  of  the  Tropics.  So  it  is  in  almost  every  line.  The  United 
States  has  long  striven  to  make  its  neighbors  in  South  America  realize 
the  importance  of  this  country,  but  they  still  turn  largely  to  Europe 
as  their  great  model.  Buenos  Aires,  for  example,  strives  to  imitate 
Paris,  not  New  York.  In  Japan  we  were  the  pioneers  in  showing  the 
way  to  "European"  civilization,  but  after  we  had  opened  the  door  our 
place  was  soon  taken  by  teachers  directly  from  Europe.      • 

The  high  esteem  in  which  the  rest  of  the  world  holds  Europe  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at.  Since  the  days  of  Christ  that  continent  has  con- 
tributed most  of  the  great  ideas  which  have  hastened  the  march  of 
civilization.  In  art,  in  literature,  in  science,  in  education,  in  govern- 
ment, the  progress  of  the  world  has  almost  wholly  come  from  Europe. 
In  religion,  to  be  sure,  Asia  has  contributed  Mohammedanism,  just  as 
in  earlier  days  it  contributed  Christianity,  Judaism,  Buddhism,  and 
Hinduism.  Yet  even  in  religion  practically  all  the  great  steps  of  prog- 
ress during  the  past  1800  years  have  been  made  in  Europe.  If  we 
try  to  sum  up  what  each  of  the  continents  has  contributed  to  the  world's 
progress  during  those  eighteen  centuries,  the  importance  of  Europe 
becomes  overwhelming.  Asia  has  given  little  except  Mohammedanism, 
Japanese  art,  and  the  slig'ht  influence  which  Hindu  philosophy  and 
Japanese  ideals  of  loyalty  are  now  exerting  upon  other  countries. 
Africa  has  contributed  no  new  idea  of  any  great  importance.     The 

11 


12  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

same  is  true  of  South  America.  Australia  has  done  a  little  better,  for 
the  mention  of  that  continent  brings  to  mind  certain  important  ideas 
as  to  labor  legislation,  the  functions  of  the  government,  and  other 
progressive  policies  which  are  having  a  real  influence  upon  other  coun- 
tries. North  America  stands  still  higher  in  this  respect.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  American  ideas  of  government  and  of  human  rights 
are  having  a  profound  effect  upon  many  nations  in  other  continents. 
So,  too,  certain  American  inventions  and  scientific  discoveries  are  caus- 
ing life  to  assume  new  aspects  all  over  the  world.  Our  telegraphs, 
telephones,  sewing  machines,  harvesters,  and  other  kinds  of  labor- 
saving  machinery,  for  example,  are  unquestionably  causing  American 
influence  to  pervade  all  the  continents.  Yet  the  seeds  of  most  of  our 
ideas  came  from  Europe.  Without  our  help  Europe  would  have  been 
almost  as  advanced  as  it  is  today.  Its  transportation  system,  its  fac- 
tories, its  art,  its  literature,  its  education,  its  government,  and  its  re- 
ligion would  have  been  a  little  different  if  there  had  been  no  America, 
but  the  difference  would  have  been  slight.  Only  since  America  en- 
tered the  Great  War  has  its  effect  on  Europe  been  notable.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  every  respect  America  would  have  been  enormously 
different  if  there  had  been  no  Europe. 

Only  a  part  of  Europe  possesses  this  wonderful  power  of  influencing 
and  leading  the  rest  of  the  world.  This  part  is  western  Europe  from 
Italy  and  Austria  northwestward.  England  possesses  the  power  of 
leadership  to  a  superlative-  degree.  France  and  Germany,  together 
with  the  small  countries  adjacent  to  them,  also  possess  it  strongly. 
Austria,  Italy,  and  Scandinavia  come  next  in  influence  upon  the  move- 
ment of  world  affairs.  Spain  takes  a  lower  rank  today,  although  a 
few  centuries  ago  its  influence  was  greater  than  that  of  almost  any 
other  country.  Russia,  although  located  in  eastern  Europe,  has  some 
of  the  western  power  of  leadership.  Yet  it  wholly  fails  to  stand  on 
a  par  with  the  other  great  countries,  such  as  England,  France,  and 
Germany.  Its  presence  in  Asia,  for  example,  has  changed  the  habits 
and  thoughts  of  the  native  inhabitants  far  less  than  has  the  presence 
of  England  in  India.  Moreover,  its  influence  upon  the  activities  of 
the  othei-  great  powers  is  by  no  means  equal  to  that  of  any  one  of 
the  three  great  powers  farther  west.  Thus  we  may  say  that  only 
the  western  half  of  Europe  today  takes  a  leading  part  in  the  great 
movements  which  cause  the  words  "Europe"  and  "civilization"  to  be 
almost  inseparable. 

The  most  striking  example  of  the  surpassing  influence  of  Europe 


EUROPE  AS  A    WHOLE  13 

is  seen  in  the  Great  War.  Contrast  the  effect  of  this  war  with  that  of 
some  of  its  recent  predecessors.  When  Spain  and  the  United  States 
went  to  war,  the  main  currents  of  the  world's  affairs  suffered  only  a 
gentle  ripple.  Many  a  man  in  the  more  backward  parts  of  the  world 
did  not  know  that  such  a  war  was  taking  place.  Even  in  countries 
like  Canada  and  France,  near  neighbors  of  the  powers  that  were  at 
war,  the  average  citizen  could  not  detect  any  difference  in  his  daily 
life  because  of  the  war.  When  England  fought  the  Boers,  the  rest 
of  the  world  pursued  its  ordinary  course.  The  war  between  China 
and  Japan  (1894)  did  not  particularly  affect  other  countries,  although 
a  quarter  of  the  earth's  population  was  nominally  fighting.  Russia's 
conflict  with  Japan  stirred  more  interest  than  did  the  Japanese  war 
with  China,  but  except  for  what  he  read  in  the  papers  the  average 
American  had  no  reason  to  feel  that  anything  unusual  was  happening. 
Then  came  the  Great  War.  If  Austria  and  Russia  had  fought  it  out 
alone,  the  rest  of  the  world  could  have  looked  on  with  comparative 
equanimity.  When  Germany  and  France  entered  the  struggle,  however, 
the  whole  situation  changed.  The  center  of  the  most  influential  part 
of  the  world  was  on  fire.  The  bonds  of  transportation  and  communi- 
cation that  connect  the  world  have  become  so  close  that  the  fire  ran 
out  in  every  direction.  England  found  itself  in  the  conflagration  at 
once.  Then  the  dominance  of  Europe  in  the  affairs  of  the  world  be- 
came evident.  Nation  after  nation  joined  the  conflict,  until  on  one  side 
18  and  on  the  other  side  4  had  actually  declared  war,  and  10  others 
had  broken  diplomatic  relations  with  Germany.  Moreover,  every  in- 
habited part  of  the  world  has  felt  the  effect  of  the  war.  Perhaps  some 
wandering  Eskimo  or  some  Pigmy  in  the  heart  of  Africa  may  never 
have  heard  of  it.  But  even  the  Eskimo  and  the  Pigmy  have  almost 
certainly  found  that  sharp  knives  and  bright-colored  pieces  of  cloth  do 
no  filter  into  their  remote  regions  as  they  did  before  the  war.  Aside 
from  a  few  such  isolated  people  there  is  not  a  man,  woman,  or  child 
whose  life  has  not  in  some  way  been  influenced  by  the  Great  War. 
Many  have  sent  their  sons  and  brothers  to  fight,  while  all  have  been 
taxed  more  heavily  than  ever  before,  or  have  been  forced  to  go  with- 
out some  of  their  accustomed  luxuries  and  to  pay  high  prices  for  the 
most  common  necessities.  They  have  also  been  led  to  think  new 
thoughts  and  to  face  public  problems  that  never  entered  their  heads 
before.  A  war  in  China,  India,  or  South  America  could  never  have 
had  any  such  result.  Even  the  greatest  conceivable  war  in  North 
America  could  never  have  produced  such  a  widespread  disturbance. 


14  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

The  Great  War  has  done  all  this  because  it  centered  in  western  Europe, 
the  home  of  civilization.  That  region,  far  more  than  any  other,  holds 
in  its  hands  the.  destinies  of  the  whole  inhabited  world. 

Why  is  Europe  so  important?  That  is  the  main  question  to  be  an- 
swered in  this  course.  There  are  many  answers,  historical,  racial, 
political,  social,  and  geographical.  In  the  pages  that  follow  the  geo- 
graphical answer  is  considered.  This  involves  a  study  of  Europe  as  a 
whole — a  consideration  of  its  position,  relief,  climate,  resources,  trans- 
portation, commerce,  races,  and  many  other  subjects  embraced  in 
Part  I.  In  Part  II  the  geographic  facts  relating  to  individual  countries 
are  discussed.  In  all  three  parts  the  method  is  the  same,  and  each 
subject  treated  is  to  be  considered  as  furnishing  material  for  an  under- 
standing of  the  larger  problem.  As  to  each  one  we  must  ask:  "How 
do  geographic  conditions  influence  this  country?  How  do  they  cause  ^t 
to  differ  from  other  countries?" 

Main  Physical  Features 
The  Position  of  Europe 

In  what  way  has  the  position  of  Europe  played  a  part  in  causing 
the  continent  to  be  dominant  in  the  world's  affairs? 

One  answer  to  this  question  lies  in  the  fact  that  western  Europe 
is  so  located  that  it  can  easily  come  in  contact  with  other  parts  of  the 
world.  No  other  region  rivals  western  Europe  in  the  ease  with  which 
it  can  communicate  with  a  great  number  of  people  and  with  a  great 
variety  of  countries.  In  order  to  see  how  true  this  is,  work  out  the 
following  problems: 

(1)  Relation  to  the  land  hemisphere. — In  some  standard  atlas  find 
a  map  showing  the  world  divided  into  hemispheres  containing  the 
maximum  amount  of  land  and  water  respectively.  Find  the  center 
of  the  land  hemisphere.  Record  your  conclusions  as  to  the  degree  to 
which  the  lands  and  hence  the  inhabited  parts  of  the  world  are  accessible 
from  western  Europe  as  compared  with  other  regions. 

(2)  Distance  of  Europe  from  great  centers  of  population. — Test 
the  conclusions  reached  above  by  measuring  the  distance  from  the 
largest  city  in  each  continent  to  the  largest  city  in  each  of  the  other 
continents.  Reckon  the  distance  in  miles  by  land  and  miles  by  water 
along  the  easiest  route.  Use  a  globe,  and  bear  in  mind  that  ships  sail 
along  "great  circle"  courses.  Remember  that  transportation  costs 
nearly  ten  times  as  much  by  land  as  by  water  but  takes  less  than  half 
as  long.    On  this  basis  reckon  the  distance  from  place  to  place  in  units. 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  15 

a  unit  being  either  100  miles  by  land  or  400  by  water.  Find  the  aver- 
age distance  of  each  city  from  the  other  five.  Arrange  the  cities  in 
order  according  to  their  accessibility,  and  write  out  your  conclusions 
as  to  the  relative  advantages  of  the  position  of  the  various  continents. 
How  does  this  order  compare  with  the  volume  of  foreign  commerce 
from  each  continent? 

(3)  Position  of  Europe  in  respect  to  commercial  and  industrial 
activity. — From  the  list  of  cities  in  the  World  Almanac  or  in  some 
good  geography  determine  how  many  cities  of  200,000  population  or 
more  lie  within  a  radius  of  1000  miles  of  each  of  the  six  cities  used 
above.  This  will  give  an  approximate  measure  of  the  degree  of  com- 
mercial and  industrial  activity  in  each  continent.  Do  the  figures  thus 
obtained  increase  or  diminish  your  feeling  as  to  the  importance  of  the 
position  of  Europe?    Why? 

The  Relief  of  Europe 

Main  problem :  To  determine  in  what  respects  and  to  what  degree 
the  relief  of  Europe  is  more  or  less  advantageous  than  that  of  the  other 
continents. 

Minor  problems:  Determine  the  approximate  area  of  the  great 
European  plain  or  lowland  which  begins  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees 
Mountains,  extends  over  into  southeastern  England  and  southern  Scan- 
dinavia, and  extends  east  through  Germany  and  Russia. 

Compare  the  area  of  this  lowland  with  the  area  of  equally  fertile 
lowlands  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

Compare  the  approximate  number  of  people  in  the  lowland  with  the 
number  in  the  main  lowlands  in  each  of  the  other  continents,  namely, 
one  each  in  North  America,  South  America,  Africa,  and  Australia; 
and  three  in  Asia. 

Compare  the  obstacles  to  travel  in  the  European  lowland  with 
those  in  the  world's  other  great  lowlands.  The  obstacles  may  take 
the  form  of  mountains  projecting  into  the  lowland,  great  swampy 
areas,  rivers  so  large  that  they  cause  devastating  floods  and  are  hard 
to  cross,  forests  too  dense  to  traverse,  and  deserts  or  dry  areas  where 
population  is  bound  to  be  scanty  and  transportation  correspondingly 
•costly.  Make  a  table  showing  the  size  and  nature  of  the  obstacles  in 
each  continent.  Also  make  a  table  of  the  distance  that  one  can  travel 
in  each  lowland  along  the  main  line  of  movement  without  encountering 
any  important  topographic  or  climatic  obstacle. 

Study  the  direction  of  the  main  axis  of  the  lowland  and  its  relation 


i6  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

to  the  main  lines  of  travel  and  to  the  main  obstacles,  and  see  how  these 
compare  with  the  conditions  in  the  world's  other  great  lowlands. 

Main  conclusions:  Arrange  the  continents  in  the  order  of  the  favor- 
ability  of  their  relief.  Make  a  table  expressing  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  each.  Write  out  a  statement  of  the  reasons  why  the 
east  and  west  trend  of  the  main  lowland  of  Europe  is  a  great  advantage. 
The  Climate  of  Europe 

Europe  owes  its  supremacy  even  more  to  its  climate  than  to  its  posi- 
tion and  relief.  This  is  because  no  other  continent  contains  so  large 
a  proportion  of  area  where  the  climate  is  highly  favorable  to  human 
activity  and  also  to  agriculture. 

(1)  In  an  atlas  showing  physical  features  o!"  in  any  text  book 
on  climatology  or  on  physical  geography  take  the  maps  showing  the 
isotherms  in  January  and  July.  Lay  a  sheet  of  tracing  paper  over  the 
January  map,  and  trace  the  approximate  location  of  the  isotherms  indi- 
cating a  mean  temperature  of  32°  and  45°  (or  30°  and  50°  if  32°  and 
45°  are  not  given)  in  each  continent.  (If  such  terms  as  "isotherms" 
are  not  understood  a  special  exercise  may  be  devoted  to  them.)  Lightly 
shade  the  continental  areas  included  between  the  lines.  These  shaded 
areas  show  the  parts  of  the  world  where  the  winter  temperature  is  near 
to  that  which  is  most  favorable  for  mental  activity. 

(2)  The  most  favorable  temperature  for  physical  activity  is  an 
average  of  from  60°  to  70°.  Accordingly,  place  the  map  that  you  have 
just  made  on  the  map  showing  the  isotherms  for  July.  Draw  lines 
showing  the  60°  and  70°  isotherm  in  each  continent.  Shade  all  the 
areas  between  these  lines,  but  be  sure  to  use  a  type  of  shading  easily 
distinguished  from  that  already  employed.  Draw  heavy  lines  around 
the  areas  which  have  both  kinds  of  shading.  Remember  that  one  kind 
of  shading  indicates  that  the  winters  are  highly  favorable  for  mental 
activity,  while  the  other  shows  that  the  summers  are  highly  favorable 
for  physical  activity.  Both  kinds  of  activity  are  needed  if  civilization 
is  to  reach  the  highest  level.  Hence,  the  areas  within  your  solid  line 
are  the  most  favored  parts  of  the  world.  Write  a  discussion  of  the 
degree  to  which  Europe  is  favored  compared  with  the  other  continents. 
Write  a  further  discussion  of  the  degree  to  which  different  countries 
of  Europe  are  favored.  What  has  all  this  to  do  with  the  degree  of 
energy  shown  by  each  of  the  belligerents  in  the  Great  War  ? 

(3)  Changes  of  temperature  from  day  to  day  as  well  as  from  sea- 
son to  season  are  highly  advantageous.  They  not  only  promote  physical 
health  but  are  a  great  mental  stimulus.     Such  changes  arise  largely 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  17 

from  "cyclonic"  storms  such  as  occur  every  week  or  two  in  most  parts 
of  the  United  States.  On  a  map  of  storminess  such  as  is  found  in 
Bartholomew's  Meteorological  Atlas  determine  the  areas  where  storms 
are  abundant.  How  do  these  compare  with  the  areas  of  favorable 
temperature  ? 

(4)  If  civilization  is  to  advance,  the  climatic  conditions  must  be 
favorable  for  agriculture  as  well  as  for  human  activity.  Let  us  see 
how  Europe  stands  in  this  respect.  In  order  that  agriculture  may 
flourish  in  the  temperate  zone  without  the  help  of  irrigation  the  tem- 
perature must  average  60°  or  higher  for  at  least  3  months;  during 
those  months  there  must  be  at  least  two  inches  of  rain  per  month; 
and  there-  must  at  no  time  be  any  long  period  when  the  temperature 
averages  60"  or  higher  and  there  is  less  than  two  inches  of  rain.  If 
monthly  maps  of  rainfall  and  temperature  are  available,  for  example, 
in  Bartholomew's  Atlas  of  Meteorology,  find  out  just  what  parts  of 
Europe  enjoy  these  conditions.  In  this  respect  how  does  Europe  com- 
pare with  the  parts  of  North  America  in  similar  latitudes?  If  maps 
showing  the  monthly  rainfall  and  temperature  are  not  available,  study 
the  maps  of  crops  in  the  Atlas  of  World  Agriculture.  Make  a  list  of 
all  the  crops  there  shown  and  indicate  in  which  continent  the  produc- 
tion is  greatest.  On  this  basis,  what  conclusion  do  you  draw  as  to  the 
agricultural  possibilities  of  Europe?  What  relation  have  these  possi- 
bilities to  both  the  relief  and  the  climate  of  Europe?  Sum  up  your 
conclusions  as  to  the  degree  to  which  Europe  enjoys  conditions  that 
are  highly  favorable  both  for  man's  activity  and  for  agriculture. 

The  Relation  of  Europe  to  the  Sea 
One  of  the  important  factors  which  has  caused  Europe  to  be  the 
leading  continent  is  its  relation  to  the  sea.  In  no  other  continent  are 
there  so  many  deep  indentations  which  bring  all  parts  within  easy 
reach  of  oceanic  communication.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  west, 
and  is  another  reason  why  western  Europe  is  much  more  influential 
than  eastern  Europe.  Another  important  factor  is  that  the  great  in- 
dentations on  the  north  and  south  sides  of  Europe — that  is,  the  North 
and  Baltic  Seas  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Mediterranean  and  Black  Seas 
on  the  other — have  their  longest  axes  in  an  east  and  west  direction 
parallel  to  the  lines  of  greatest  movement.  Thus,  land  communication 
is  supplemented  by  water  communication  as  in  no  other  continent.  Also, 
the  fact  that  the  sea  is  so  near  to  most  parts  of  Europe  tends  to  im- 
prove the  climate,  for  the  moisture  of  the  sea  can  reach  far  inland. 


i8  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

(1)  Distance  from  the  sea. — In  order  to  see  how  close  most  parts 
of  Europe  are  to  the  ocean,  take  outline  maps  of  Europe,  North 
America,  and  Asia.  On  each  one  draw  a  line  approximately  parallel 
to  the  coast  and  at  a  distance  of  300  miles  from  it.  Shade  the  region 
within  300  miles  of  the  coast  and  roughly  estimate  its  area.  This 
estimate  may  be  made  by  placing  over  the  map  a  transparent  sheet  of  • 
paper  ruled  in  squares  and  then  counting  the  squares.  Sum  up  your 
conclusions  as  to  the  relative  accessibility  of  Europe  and  of  the  other 
continents  to  the  ocean.  In  the  same  way  compare  the  different  parts 
of  Europe. 

(2)  Inland  cities  and  oceanic  communication. — Locate  the  ten 
largest  inland  cities  of  Europe  and  find  their  average  distance  from 
the  sea.  Do  the  same  for  the  ten  largest  inland  cities  of  North  America 
and  of  Asia.     Compare  the  three  continents  in  this  respect. 

(3)  Direction  of  the  waterways. — Measure  the  distance  which  one 
can  proceed  eastward  or  northeastward  with  ocean  steamers  (a)  from 
Gibraltar,  (b)  from  the  British  Isles.  How  does  this  compare  with 
the  distance  that  ocean  steamers  can  proceed  westward  in  North 
America  (a)  from  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  (b)  from  the 
Straits  of  Florida.  Make  similar  comparisons  for  the  other  continents 
so  far  as  possible  and  sum  up  your  results. 

(4)  Relation  of  the  sea  to  climate.' — In  order  to  see  how  much  in- 
fluence the  presence  of  the  ocean  and  its  location  in  respect  to  the  pre- 
vailing westerly  winds  have  upon  the  climate  of  Europe,  make  a  table 
showing  the  rainfall  on  the  seaward  and  inland  sides  of  the  following 
natural  features  of  Europe:  (For  this  purpose  use  any  good  map 
showing  the  total  annual  rainfall.) 

(a)  The  central  part  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula. 

(b)  The  part  of  Great  Britain  from  Wales  to  eastern  England. 

(c)  The  great  continental  plain  extending  from  France  to  eastern 
Russia. 

(d)  The  western  and  eastern  sides  of  the  mountains  of  western 
Spain. 

(e)  The  north  and  south  slopes  of  the  Alps. 

(f)  The  western  and  eastern  sides  of  the  Dinaric  Alps* east  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea 

Sum  up  your  conclusions  as  to  the  value  of  deep  arms  of  the  sea  in 
producing  favorable  climate.  Point  out  the  degree  to  which  Europe 
is  more  favored  than  the  other  continents  in  this  respect. 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  19 

The  Natural  Regions  of  Europe 
A.  The  Meaning  of  Natural  Regions. 
The  preceding  consideration  of  the  position,  rehef,  climate,  and 
oceanic  relations  prepares  the  way  for  the  division  of  Europe  into 
natural  regions.  The  term  natural  region  means  an  area  within  which 
the  total  effect  of  the  physical  features  is  such  that  the  general  aspects 
of  life,  including  man,  animals,  and  plants,  are  similar.  Since  man  is 
the  most  important  living  being  the  conditions  of  his  life  are  the  main 
criteria  in  determining  the  natural  regions.  In  determining  the  natural 
regions  of  a  continent  it  is  necessary  first  to  consider  the  regions  into 
which  the  continent  would  be  divided  on  the  basis  of  each  one  of  the 
main  physical  features  already  considered  and  then  to  sum  up  the 
conclusions  and  to  form  a  new  division  of  areas  on  the  basis  of  a  com- 
bination of  the  previous  divisions.  The  following  paragraphs  show 
how  this  is  done.  Position  and  relation  to  the  sea  are  considered  to- 
gether because  essentially  they  lead  to  the  same  divisions.  In  each 
case  outline  maps  of  Europe  should  be  used,  and  the  natural  divisions 
should  be  clearly  marked. 

(1)     Divisions  on  the  basis  of  position. 

(a)  Northwestern  or  Atlantic  Region.  This  includes  all  the  region 
within  about  300  miles  of  the  seacoast  from  southern  France  to  the 
North  Cape,  including  the  Baltic  Sea.    It  omits  southern  France. 

(b)  The  Mediterranean  Region.  This  includes  the  southern  penin- 
sulas from  Spain  to  Greece  and  all  the  intervening  area  within  about 
150  miles  of  the  coast. 

(c)  The  Southeastern  Region,  including  all  the  area  within  300 
miles  of  the  Black  or  Caspian  Seas. 

(d)  The  Northeastern  Region,  including  all  the  area  within  300 
miles  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  except  in  so  far  as  part  of  this  area  is 
already  included  in  the  Atlantic  Region. 

(e)  The  Central  Region.  This  comprises  all  the  area  not  included 
within  any  of  the  preceding  divisions.  Notice  that  this  region  is  almost 
entirely  confined  to  eastern  Europe. 

(2)     Divisions  on  the  basis  of  relief. 
On  the  basis  of  relief  Europe  seems  to  fall  naturally  into  five  regions : 
(a)     The  northwestern  highland,  which  includes  northern  Ireland, 
Scotland,  all  except  the  southern  tip  of  Scandinavia,  and  part  of  Fin- 
land. 


20  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

(b)  The  great  central  plain,  which  extends  from  France  and  south- 
eastern England  through  Germany  to  Russia,  where  it  expands  to  the 
Black  Sea  on  the  south  and  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the  north. 

(c)  The  central  mountains,  which  include  the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps, 
and  the  Carpathians. 

(d)  The  plains  of  Hungary  and  Rumania,  which  lie  south  of  part 
of  the  central  mountains. 

(e)  The  southern  peninsulas  of  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  Balkans. 

In  what  respect  do  these  divisions  differ  from  those  based  on  posi- 
tion and  on  relation  to  the  sea?    Which  method  of  division  is  better? 

(3)     Divisions  on  the  basis  of  climate. 

On  this  basis  it  is  necessary  to  consider  how  far  the  climate  is  favor- 
able both  to  man  and  to  agriculture. 

(a)  Northwestern  Europe.  This  includes  the  region  where  the 
conditions  are  highly  favorable  for  human  activity  as  defined  under 
"Climate  of  Europe"  (p.  16),  and  where  the  summers  are  warm 
enough  and  long  enough  to  be  favorable  for  agriculture.  It  embraces 
France  except  for  the  southern  portion,  northern  Italy,  Switzerland, 
western  Austria,  Germany,  a  narrow  fringe  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Baltic,  and  the  southern  part  of  Scandinavia,  together  with  Denmark, 
Holland,  Belgium,  England,  and  southern  Scotland. 

(b)  Regions  with  summers  too  cold  for  agriculture.  This  includes 
areas  where  the  climate  is  not  excessively  cold  in  winter  but  where 
there  is  relatively  little  contrast  between  summer  and  winter  so  that 
the  summers  are  too  cold  for  profitable  agriculture.  Most  of  Ireland 
and  Scotland  and  the  shores  of  Norway  are  of  this  type. 

(c)  Regions  where  the  summers  are  warm  enough  for  agriculture 
but  the  winters  are  so  cold  as  to  be  benumbing  to  human  activity.  The 
coast  of  the  tr-o  gulfs  at  the  head  of  the  Baltic  Sea  and  the  part  of 
Russia  extending  from  the  Baltic  Sea  eastward  belong  to  this  division. 

(d)  Regions  where  the  summers  are  too  cold  for  agriculture  and 
the  winters  are  benumbing  to  human  activity.  This  includes  the  high- 
lands of  Scandinavia  and  the  district  bordering  the  Arctic  Ocean  ex- 
tending south  for  about  500  miles.    It  is  almost  uninhabited. 

Ce)  Regions  where  the  winters  are  favorable  both  to  man  and  to 
agriculture  but  where  the  summers  are  too  hot  for  man  and  too  dry 
for  agriculture.  This  includes  most  of  Spain,  a  small  part  of  southern 
France,  the  southern  two-thirds  of  Italy,  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and 
the  part  of  Russia  near  the  Caspian  Sea. 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  21 

(f)  Regions  where  the  summers  are  too  warm  and  the  winters 
too  cold  for  man's  best  good  but  where  agriculture  is  fairly  flourishing. 
This  includes  most  of  Austria,  Poland,  Bulgaria,  Rumania,  and  the 
southern  part  of  Russia. 

These  divisions  are  somewhat  complex.  A  little  study,  however, 
shows  that  to  a  considerable  extent  they  agree  with  the  divisions  formed 
on  the  basis  of  position  with  relation  to  the  sea.  Without  regard  to 
the  complexity  of  the  divisions,  sum  up  your  conclusions  as  to  which 
method  of  dividing  the  continent  is  more  likely  to  give  a  true  idea  of 
the  character  and  activities  of  the  people. 

The  following  pages  describe  the  standard  natural  divisions  into 
which  Europe  is  divided.  Other  methods  of  dividing  the  continent 
may  equally  well  be  used.  Those  here  given,  however,  are  based  on 
careful  consideration  of  all  the  various  geographic  factors.  They  are 
designed  to  be  few  enough  to  be  easily  remembered  and  yet  to  be  so 
numerous  that  each  division  shall  be  fairly  homogeneous  in  the  char- 
acter and  occupations  of  its  people.  As  these  divisions  are  studied 
compare  them  with  those  based  on  the  position  and  oceanic  relations, 
the  relief,  and  the  climate. 

B.     The  Description  of  the  Natural  Regions  of  Europe."^ 

Fortunately  for  Europe  its  natural  geographic  regions,  unlike  those 
of  the  United  States,  trend  east  and  west  rather  than  north  and  south. 
Its  most  fertile  plain  touches  the  Atlantic  coast  instead  of  being  sep- 
arated from  it  by  a  broad  mountainous  region  such  as  the  Appalachians 
or  Rockies  in  the  United  States.  Because  of  the  openness  of  this  plain 
to  the  sea  Europe  is  more  favored  than  the  United  States,  both  in  cli- 
mate and  in  transportation  facilities.  This  advantage  is  offset  by  the 
fact  that  Europe,  especially  in  the  portion  most  favored  by  nature,  is 
split  into  many  political  divisions,  each  with  its  own  language  and  its 
own  interests,  which  are  often  opposed  to  those  of  its  neighbors. 

The  Northwestern  Highland. 
The  Northwestern  Highland  of  Europe  includes  most  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian Peninsula,  together  with  northern  Scotland.  In  proportion 
to  the  population  the  number  of  people  who  get  a  living  from  the  sea 
is  greater  in  the  Northwestern  Highland  of  Europe  than  in  almost  any 
other  part  of  the  world.    Those  who  do  not  follow  the  sea  are  usually 


♦Parts  of  this  section  are  taken  almost  unchanged  from  a  Teachers' 
Manual  of  Geography,  published  in  1918,  by  the  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Education.    That  fact  will  explain  the  method  of  treatment. 


22  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

engaged  in  taking  care  of  sheep  and  cattle,  although  there  are  others 
who  are  lumbermen  or  miners.  Without  the  four  occupations  of  sea- 
faring, cattle-raising,  lumbering,  and  mining,  most  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Northwestern  Highland  would  be  unable  to  support  themselves. 
The  land  is  so  rough  and  rugged  and  the  weather  so  cloudy  and  cool 
that  the  farms  are  limited  to  small  patches  in  especially  favored  valleys. 
Even  there  only  hardy  crops,  like  oats  and  barley,  can  be  raised. 

In  order  to  get  a  living  the  people  must  turn  either  to  the  sea  or  to 
the  mountains.  It  is  easy  to  turn  to  the  sea,  for  its  waters  come  to 
the  doors  of  nearly  half  the  inhabitants.  Not  only  have  glaciers 
deepened  many  of  the  valleys  so  that  the  ocean  water  has  entered  them, 
but  the  coast  has  been  submerged  so  that  there  are  innumerable  fiords 
and  islands  among  which  the  fishermen's  boats  can  be  moored  safely. 
Traveling  inland  from  the  coast  one  must  begin  to  climb  almost  at  once, 
for  the  level  land  is  so  limited  in  extent  that  there  is  scarcely  room 
either  for  farms  or  cities.  In  many  places  the  slopes,  especially  on  the 
east  side,  are  covered  with  dense  forests  that  furnish  lumber  for  houses 
and  ships,  and  fuel  for  preparing  high  grades  of  steel  from  the  iron 
ore  which  is  one  of  the  great  resources  of  northern  Sweden.  Many 
of  the  slopes,  especially  those  facing  the  west,  are  so  constantly  cool 
and  cloudy  that  trees  will  not  flourish,  and  the  slopes  are  covered  by 
thick  grass  which  furnishes  fine  pasturage.  The  farmers  depend  on 
their  animals  even  more  than  on  their  crops,  and  often  have  a  summer 
home  among  the  mountain  pastures  as  well  as  a  winter  home  by  the  sea. 

In  such  a  region  internal  commerce  is  almost  lacking,  and  it  does 
not  pay  to  build  railroads,  especially  since  the  rugged  relief  makes  the 
work  of  construction  very  expensive.  Because  of  their  stimulating 
climate  and  good  inheritance,  however,  the  people  are  very  energetic, 
and  are  extensively  engaged  in  the  carrying  trade  for  other  countries. 
Scotch  sailors  are  found  all  over  the  world,  and  Glasgow  is  one  of 
the  greatest  shipbuilding  ports.  Before  the  war,  Norway  in  propor- 
tion to  her  population  had  more  ships  than  any  other  country — twice 
as  many  as  England,  four  times  as  many  as  Greece,  five  times  as  many 
as  Holland,  and  from  ten  to  fifteen  times  as  many  as  the  United  States 
or  Germany.  In  other  ways,  too,  the  people  of  the  Highlands  show 
great  efficiency.  Like  the  Swiss  they  are  more  and  more  causing  their 
abundant  glacial  lakes  and  waterfalls,  their  rugged  mountains,  and  their 
picturesque  coasts  to  be  accessible  to  tourists.  Thus  thfey  gain  for 
themselves  some  of  the  wealth  produced  in  regions  of  greater  natural 
resources. 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  23 

The  Scotch  and  Norwegians  are  noted  for  their  thriftiness.  This  is 
due  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  people  are  naturally  alert  in  mind,  and 
partly  tc  the  fact  that  a  combination  of  geographical  circumstances 
makes  them  active  in  body  and  prevents  them  from  getting  a  living 
except  through  vigorous  efforts. 

(1)  How  do  conditions  of  relief,  soil,  temperature,  rainfall,  and  the 
use  of  machinery  influence  farming  in  the  Northwestern  Highland  and 
thus  help  to  make  the  people  thrifty? 

(2)  How  do  grazing  conditions  help  to  make  them  thrifty? 

(3)  Why  is  not  grazing  as  profitable  here  as  it  is  in  Holland? 

(4)  How  has  the  fact  that  there  is  little  or  no  manufacturing  helped 
to  make  the  people  thrifty? 

(5)  Why  does  the  fishing  industry  tend  to  make  the  people  thrifty? 

(6)  How  does  the  cHmate  help  to  keep  the  people  from  falling  to 
a  low  standard  of  living? 

State  your  conclusion  in  the  form  of  a  summary  of  the  effect  of 
climate,  relief,  and  position  upon  human  activities. 

The  Western  Lowland. 

The  significance  of  the  Western  Lowland  of  Europe,  which  includes 
England,  France,  Belgium,  Netherlands,  Germany,  and  Austria,  may 
be  judged  by  comparison  with  the  United  States.  The  North  Atlantic 
Lowland  of  the  United  States  is  admirably  located  for  commerce;  the 
Appalachian  Highland  contains  magnificent  deposits  of  coal;  the  Lake 
Superior  district  boasts  some  of  the  world's  richest  deposits  of  iron 
ore;  the  great  prairie  plains  are  unsurpassed  in  agricultural  possibili- 
ties; and  all  these  regions  enjoy  a  most  stimulating  climate.  Suppose, 
however,  that  instead  of  being  spread  over  a  distance  of  700  or  800 
miles,  ana  separated  from  one  another  by  a  broad  highland,  these  ad- 
vantages were  concentrated  within  100  or  200  miles,  and  were  close  to 
an  open  waterway,  permitting  the  largest  ships  to  penetrate  far  into 
the  interior;  then  our  country  would  have  a  region  like  the  Western 
Lowland  of  Europe.  Within  the  borders  of  the  European  lowland  in 
England,  France,  Belgium,  Germany,  and  Austria  are  some  of  the 
world's  finest  beds  of  coal.  Close  to  the  coal  in  four  of  these  countries 
there  are  valuable  deposits  of  iron  ore,  and  the  neighboring  fertile 
plains  produce  fine  crops.  Add  to  all  this  the  fact  that  most  of  the  West- 
ern Lowland  is  less  than  250  miles  from  the  sea,  and  that  numerous  fine 
harbors  and  navigable  rivers  bring  almost  every  part  within  easy  reach 


24  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

of  ocean  transportation.  The  combination  of  all  these  favorable  con- 
ditions, together  with  a  highly  stimulating  climate,  causes  this  rather 
small  area — only  one-fifth  as  large  as  the  United  States — to  have  twice 
as  many  cities  of  over  100,000  people  as  has  the  United  States  or  all 
the  rest  of  Europe.  In  fact,  one-third  of  all  the  world's  cities  of  more 
than  100,000  people  are  packed  into  this  comparatively  small  area,  which 
comprises  only  a  seventh  of  Europe  and  less  than  1  per  cent  of  the 
total  land  surface  of  the  earth.  This  section  does  more  than  half  of 
the  world's  manufacturing,  and  carries  on  more  than  half  of  its  com- 
merce.   Nowhere  else  in  the  world  can  there  be  found  so  busy  a  region. 

The  reasons  why  the  Western  Lowland  of  Europe  is  the  most  important 
region  of  its  size  in  the  world. 

All  the  conditions  of  position,  relief,  climate,  and  nearness  to  the 
sea  which  make  Europe  the  most  important  of  the  continents  are  con- 
centrated to  an  even  greater  degree  in  the  Western  Lowland.  Remem- 
ber that  this  lowland  includes  western  and  northern  France  but  not  the 
central  mountains  and  the  south;  it  includes  most  of  England  but  not 
Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland;  it  also  includes  Netherlands,  Belgium, 
and  Denmark;  a  narrow  strip,  in  southern  Norway  and  the  plain  of 
southern  Sweden,  that  is,  the  parts  of  these  two  countries  where  the 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  found;  practically  all  of  Germany  is 
included  and  the  western  part  of  Austria  to  a  point  a  little  east  of 
Vienna ;  and  finally  the  western  fringe  of  Russia  as  far  north  as  Petro- 
grad.  Consider  the  way  in  which  almost  all  the  conditions  of  progress  ' 
exist  here  in  close  proximity. 

(1)  Coal. — Examine  a  map  showing  the  distribution  of  coal  in 
Europe.  From  a  table  of  coal  production  by  countries,  such  as  is  found 
on  page  45,  determine  the  approximate  percentage  of  the -world's 
total  coal  production  and  of  the  European  production  that  comes  from 
this  Western  Lowland  or  from  its  immediate  borders,  such  as  Wales 
and  southern  Scotland.  Discuss  this  fact  in  its  relation  to  manufac- 
tures and  transportation. 

(2)  Iron. — Examine  a  map  showing  the  distribution  of  iron  mines 
in  Europe.  Also  study  a  table  showing  the  amount  of  pig  iron  pro- 
duced in  various  countries.  How  does  the  Western  Lowland  stand  in 
the  production  of  iron  ore  and  of  pig  iron?  Explain  the  fact  that  it 
produces  much  more  pig  iron  than  would  be  possible  with  its  own  ores. 
Where  do  these  other  ores  come  from?  To  which  countries  do  they 
come?    Along  what  routes?    Why  does  the  cost  of  transportation  not 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  25 

seriously  interfere  with  the  production  of  pig  iron  ?    Explain  why  the 
ore  comes  to  the  coal  instead  of  the  coal  going  to  the  ore. 

(3)  Crops: — From  the  Atlas  of  World  Agriculture  find  how  the 
production  of  the  following  crops  in  the  Western  Lowland  compares 
with  the  production  in  other  countries :  wheat,  rye,  potatoes,  sugar, 
beets,  oats,  barley.  See  if  you  can  find  any  other  part  of  the  world 
where  there  is  an  equally  favorable  combination  of  many  kinds  of  abun- 
dant crops.  (See  also  table,  The  Food  of  Nations,  p.  38.) 

(4)  Facilities  for  Navigation. — In  this  respect  the  Western  Low- 
land is  preeminent.  How  large  a  part  of  it  is  more  than  200  miles 
from  the  sea?  Name  eight  of  the  most  important  rivers.  Look  up 
each  one  in  the  encyclopedia  in  order  to  see  how  far  each  is  navigable. 
What  do  you  conclude  as  to  facilities  for  inland  communication?  Wl«?t 
other  parts  of  the  world  can  rival  the  Western  Lowland  in  this  respect? 
Name  fifteen  good  harbors  along  the  coasts  of  the  Lowland.  Locate 
each  one.  Judging  by  the  size  of  the  cities  on  these  harbors  what  do 
you  conclude  as  to  their  excellence? 

(5)  Large  cities. — ^Among  the  larger  cities  in  the  list  in  the  World 
Almanac  or  in  some  standard  geography  pick  out  and  locate  25  that 
belong  to  the  Western  Lowland.  In  all  the  rest  of  the  world  how 
many  other  cities  are  there  that  compare  with  these  in  size  ?  Remember 
that  the  Western  Lowland  comprises  only  a  small  percentage  of  the 
land  surface  of  the  globe.  Determine  that  percentage,  and  then  draw 
conclusions  as  to  the  relative  importance  of  this  small  area  compared 
with  areas  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

(6)  Excellent  climate. — How  cold  is  the  coldest  part  of  this  Low- 
land? How  warm  is  the  warmest  part?  How  long  are  the  summers 
in  the  northern  and  southern  parts  of  the  Lowland?  The  winters? 
How  do  these  conditions  compare  with  the  ideal  as  described  in  a  pre- 
vious problems,  page  16  ?  Compare  the  rainfall  at  different  seasons. 
How  much  rain  is  there  in  the  wettest  parts  ?  The  driest  ?  How  large 
a  part  of  the  Lowland  has  either  too  much  or  too  little  rain  at  certain 
seasons?  What  features  of  the  climate  stimulate  people  to  work? 
Sum  up  your  conclusions  as  to  the  degree  to  which  the  Western  Low- 
land is  favored  above  other  regions. 

The  Eastern  Plains. 

The  Eastern  Plains  comprise  practically  the  whole  of  Russia.  (This 
region  is  so  nearly  the  same  as  Russia  that  it  is  described  under  that 
country.    See  Part  II,  "Russia.") 


26  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

The  Southeastern  Basins. 

The  Southeastern  Basins  of  Europe  comprise  the  regions  commonly 
known  as  the  plains  of  Austria,  Hungary,  and  Rumania.  Their  chief 
characteristic  is  that  they  are  broad,  flat-floored  basins  bounded  for  the 
most  part  by  high  mountains.  Thus,  they  are  cut  off  from  the  neig'h- 
boring  regions,  but  are  accessible  from  several  directions  and,  there- 
fore, have  not  preserved  such  complete  individuality  as  have  the  south- 
ern peninsulas  of  Spain  and  Italy,  which  are  shut  off  by  hig'h  moun- 
tains that  have  served  as  effective  barriers  for  centuries. 

In  the  plains  themselves  the  land  is  very  flat.  Hence,  the  rivers 
wander  over  very  wide  flood  plains  and  often  form  vast  marshes  which 
are  impassable  during  the  spring  thaw  and  summer  rains.  So  wide- 
spread are  these  marshes  that  in  Hungary  large  areas  are  uninhabited, 
and  in  Rumania  they  form  a  barrier  between  Rumania  on  the  north 
and  Bulgaria  on  the  south. 

The  rainfall  is  fairly  abundant  and  comes  more  in  summer  than  in 
any  other  season.  It  is  apt  to  come  spasmodically,  however,  and  in  the 
spring  and  fall  there  are  sometimes  droughts  which  seriously  injure 
the  crops.  This  does  much  to  prevent  these  regions  of  eastern  Europe 
from  being  as  prosperous  as  those  of  the  west.  In  addition  to  this, 
the  temperature  for  many  weeks  in  summer  remains,  higher  than  is  best 
for  human  health.  Moreover,  there  is  much  monotony  so  that  the 
climate  lacks  the  stimulating  quality  which  is  so  prominent  farther 
west.  The  winters,  too,  are  colder  than  in  the  same  latitudes  near 
the  ocean. 

Because  of  the  difficulties  of  agriculture  and  the  large  amount  of 
land  too  dry  or  too  wet  for  crops,  animal-raising  occupies  a  prominent 
place  in  the  Southeastern  Basins.  Grain,  however,  is  the  chief  farm 
product.  It  is  raised  in  such  large  quantities  that  there  is  an  enormous 
surplus  for  export,  and  Rumania  is  one  of  the  greatest  wheat-exporting 
countries.  The  traveler  comes  away  from  the  Southeastern  Basins 
strongly  impressed  by  the  grain,  cattle,  and  horses. 

The  surplus  production  of  the  Austrian  and  Hungarian  basins  is 
absorbed  by  the  adjacent  regions  that  are  less  favored  in  relief  and 
soil.  The  surplus  production  of  Rumania  is  sent  to  western  Europe 
by  way  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Dardanelles. 

Problems. — (1)  Enumerate  the  barrier  mountains  that  almost  en- 
close the  Southeastern  Basins. 

(3)     Point  out  the  routes  by  means  of  which  these  basins  come  in 


k 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  27 

contact  with  the  outside  world.    What  great  cities  have  grown  up  in 
response  to  these  routes? 

(3)  From  a  good  relief  map  of  these  regions  estimate  carefully 
the  area  of  fiat  land  in  each  of  the  basins.  What  prairie  states  of  our 
country,  or  combinations  of  them,  approximate  the  areas  of  each  of 
the  basins? 

(4)  Enumerate  the  chief  rivers  and  the  larger  tributaries  that  wan- 
der over  the  plains.  Point  out  how  they  help  and  how  they  hinder  the 
progress  of  their  countries. 

(5)  From  accounts  in  the  encyclopedias  and  geographies  select 
traits  of  the  people  that  seem  to  be  responses  to  the  fact  that  the  climate 
is  more  monotonous  and  less  stimulating  than  farther  west. 

The  Central  Mountains. 

The  Central  Mountains  begin  with  the  central  plateau  of  France, 
culminate  in  the  Alps  of  Switzerland,  and  extend  eastward  into  the 
Austrian  Alps  and  the  Carpathians. 

Switserland  as  a  problem. — As  an  example  of  how  a  portion  of  one 
of  the  natural  regions  may  be  treated  the  following  discussion  of 
Switzerland  is  here  inserted. 

Suppose  that  current  events  turn  the  attention  of  the  world  toward 
Switzerland,  Let  us  assume,  for  example,  that  the  question  of  Swiss 
fertilizers  and  of  their  exportation  to  Germany,  along  with  other  com- 
modities, happens  to  attract  the  notice  of  the  teacher  or  of  some  mem- 
ber of  the  class.  Then  the  question  arises.  How  can  Switzerland  get 
material  for  fertilizers?  and  someone  reports  that  they  are  manufac- 
tured from  the  air.  That  fact  furnishes  an  excellent  entering  wedge 
for  a  study  of  Switzerland  as  a  whole.  The  teacher  puts  before  the 
class  the  problem  of  why  Switzerland  is  engaged  in  the  fertilizer  in- 
dustry. From  his  general  study  of  Europe  the  student  will  recall  that 
Switzerland  comprises  the  culminating  part  of  the  great  central  moun- 
tains of  Europe.  He  understands  that  four-fifths  of  the  country  is  so 
high,  rugged,  and  cool  that  few  people  live  there  except  in  the  pleasure 
resorts.  The  remaining  one-fifth  from  Lake  Geneva  to  Lake  Constance 
comprises  a  narrow  lowland  of  gentle  relief  and  contains  three-fourths 
of  the  people.  With  this  background  the  student  is  ready  to  solve  the 
problem  of  why  Switzerland  is  one  of  the  few  countries  w'here  fer- 
tilizers are  made  from  the  air.  The  solution  involves  practically  every 
phase  of  Swiss  geography.  The  climate  and  the  racial  inheritance  of 
the  Swiss  make  them  energetic  and  inventive.    Their  mountains,  be- 


28  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

cause  of  their  height  and  glaciation,  abound  in  streams  which  tumble 
into  waterfalls.  Therefore,  the  Swiss  utilize  the  water  power  in  great 
hydro-electric  plants  which  at  slight  expense  generate  strong  electric 
currents  capable  of  taking  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  making  it  into 
fertilizer. 

But  why  should  the  Swiss  engage  so  prominently  in  this  particular 
kind  of  manufacturing  rather  than  in  some  other  occupation?  Could 
they  not  practice  agriculture?  The  lowland  where  most  of  them  live 
provides  excellent  farm  land  and  is  much  more  carefully  tilled  than  a 
region  like  Iowa.  Its  small  size  and  cool  climate,  however,  limit  the 
number  of  people  who  can  gain  a  living  from  farming;  hence,  when 
the  population  became  dense  many  of  the  people  were  obliged  to  look 
for  new  occupations.  In  a  country  like  India  where  the  people  have 
less  energy  they  become  poor  when  their  number  increases  too  rapidly. 
The  Swiss,  however,  have  so  much  energy  that  they  are  not  content 
with  any  such  fate.  Those  who  can  not  engage  in  agriculture  are  unable 
easily  to  turn  to  commerce,  for  Switzerland  has  no  outlet  to  the  sea. 
Moreover,  the  mountains  on  all  except  the  German  side  of  their  low- 
land are  difficult  to  cross,  and  the  country  is  completely  surrounded 
by  foreign  countries  which  impose  certain  tolls  on  goods  brought 
across  their  borders.  Nor  is  it  easy  for  the  Swiss  to  engage  in  gen- 
eral manufacturing  because  they  lack  metals  and  most  raw  materials 
except  wood  and  hides.  The  conditions  which  hinder  commerce  make 
it  unduly  expensive  to  import  great  quantities  of  heavy  materials  like 
iron,  or  bulky  materials  like  cotton  in  such  quantities  as  are  necessary 
for  making  ordinary  grades  of  cloth.  Therefore,  the  Swiss  in  order 
to  be  prosperous  have  found  it  necessary  to  devise  special  methods  of 
getting  a  living.  That  is  one  reason  why  they  have  shown  such  in- 
genuity in  utilizing  their  beautiful  scenery.  Probably  more  than  any 
other  people  they  endeavor  to  make  their  country  pleasant  and  attrac- 
tive for  travelers  and  vacationists  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  they 
receive  rich  returns  for  their  efforts. 

The  Swiss  turn  to  their  own  advantage  other  natural  resources  as 
effectively  as  they  utilize  the  scenery.  For  instance,  taking  the  wood 
which  abounds  everywhere  they  carve  it  into  superior  handmade  toys 
which  appear  on  Christmas  trees  all  over  the  world.  The  toys  can  be 
made  in  winter  when  the  people  are  not  fully  engaged  on  the  farms 
or  in  taking  care  of  tourists.  The  Swiss  have  also  developed  great  skill 
in  manufacturing  such  articles  as  watches,  fine  cloths,  and  delicate 
embroideries,  which  require  relatively  little  fuel  and  raw  material  but 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  29 

demand  a  large  amount  of  skilled  labor.  In  the  absence  of  fuel  the 
Swiss  have  shown  exceptional  ability  in  utilizing  the  streams  that 
formerly  ran  to  waste.  Their  railroads  and  trolley  lines  are  largely 
run  by  electric  power  from  the  waterfalls.  This  has  made  it  possible 
for  summer  tourists  to  be  carried  cheaply  from  one  bit  of  fine  scenery 
to  another,  with  the  result  that  they  desire  to  remain  in  the  country  as 
long  as  possible.  As  soon  as  it  was  discovered  that  fertilizers  can  be 
made  by  taking  nitrogen  from  the  air  the  Swiss  said,  "Here  is  just 
the  thing  for  us.  Nitrogen  is  a  raw  material  that  costs  nothing.  Our 
water  power  provides  cheap  electrical  energy;  our  fields  and  those  of 
our  neig'hbors  in  France  and  Germany  need  enormous  amounts  of  fer- 
tilizers." Thus  the  manufacture  of  nitrogen  fertilizers  represents,  as 
it  were,  the  latest  step  in  a  process  by  which  the  clever,  energetic  Swiss 
have  been  finding  out  how  to  make  a  good  living  in  spite  of  what  ap- 
peared to  be  scanty  resources. 

Starting  with  some  important  or  striking  activity  like  this,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  build  up  a  regional  picture.  While  this  is  being  done  the  stu- 
dent should,  as  a  matter  of  course,  learn  the  names  and  locations  of 
the  chief  cities  where  the  manufacturing  is  carried  on,  of  the  mountains 
that  act  as  barriers  or  supply  majestic  scenery,  and  of  the  rivers  that 
furnish  water  power  or  have  carved  valleys  where  railway  lines  are 
located.  In  the  same  way  the  physical  features,  such  as  climate,  relief, 
soil,  and  minerals,  should  be  fixed  in  the  student's  mind,  not  by  a  sheer 
process  of  memory,  but  as  steps  in  attaining  an  end.  So,  too,  the  vege- 
tation and  animal  life  in  their  relation  to  forests,  agriculture,  or  raw 
materials  should  become  integral  parts  of  the  picture.  Finally,  in  such 
a  study  the  student  should  consider  the  peculiar  character  of  the  people 
themselves,  their  relation  to  their  neighbors,  and  many  of  their  habits 
and  customs. 

The  Southern  Peninsulas. 

The  three  peninsulas  that  project  southward  into  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  are  lands  of  dry  summers  and  rainy  winters.  Because  the  skies 
are  so  clear  for  many  months  in  the  year  we  hear  about  the  wonderful 
blue  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  wonderful  colors  seen  on  the  land. 
This  kind  of  climate,  wherever  it  is  found,  is  called  the  subtropical, 
or  Mediterranean,  type.  The  people,  however,  would  gladly  give  up 
some  of  their  blue  skies  for  the  sake  of  good  rains  during  the  long, 
hot  summers.  They  neither  like  the  bad  crops  which  are  often  the 
result  of  scarcity  of  rain  nor  the  hard  work  that  is  needed  in  order  to 
supply  water  by  irrigation.    In  many  cases  they  are  unable  to  live  on 


30  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

scattered  farms,  as  are  the  people  of  the  Hungarian  plain,  but  must 
have  their  houses  close  together  near  to  a  water  supply  which  will  not 
fail  durng  the  long  drought.  They  enjoy  this  village  life,  however, 
for  it  is  gay  and  social. 

Because  of  the  long  summer  drought  great  forests  like  those  of  the 
north  can  not  grow,  and  their  place  is  taken  by  small  groves  or  patches 
of  woods  high  on  the  mountains.  The  most  familiar-  trees  are  the 
poplar,  the  oak,  and  the  olive,  together  with  many  fruit  trees,  such  as 
the  apricot,  the  cherry,  and,  in  the  warmer  parts,  the  orange  and  lemon. 
The  chestnut,  the  almond  and  the  Persian  (English)  walnut  also  yield 
valuable  crops.  Lumber  is  scarce,  and  the  crowded  villages  often  con- 
sist of  clusters  of  houses  built  of  stone  or  adobe  covered  with  plaster. 

In  these  southern  peninsulas  there  is  not  much  manufacturing.  This 
is  partly  because  there  is  almost  no  coal  and  water  power  is  uncertain, 
for  during  the  long,  hot  summers  the  streams  diminish  greatly  in 
volume  and  some  dry  up. 

Equally  important  is  the  fact  that  the  monotony  of  the  summer  cli- 
mate causes  the  people  to  lack  the  energy  which  is  characteristic  of  the 
people  of  the  Western  Lowland.  Commerce  also  suffers,  although  it  is 
greatly  favored  by  the  submerged  shores  which  furnish  excellent  har- 
bors in  many  parts  of  the  peninsulas.  The  inferior  in  many  localities 
is  shut  off  from  the  coast  by  mountains  which  are  not  easy  to  cross. 
The  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  clothed  with  vineyards  or  with 
groves  of  the  olive  or  cork  oak.  Their  upper  slopes  furnish  pasture 
to  thousands  of  sheep  and  goats  herded  by  ragged  boys  who  play  shrill 
tunes  on  little  pan  pipes.  In  most  parts  of  the  three  peninsulas  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  get  far  away  from  the  mountains. 

Main  problem. — Why  are  the  people  of  the  Southern  Peninsulas 
generally  poorer  than  those  of  the  United  States? 

Minor  problems. — 1.  How  does  the  distribution  of  rainfall  throug'h 
the  year  help  to  keep  the  people  in  poverty? 

2.  What  conditions  of  the  climate  tend  to  make  the  people  work 
slowly  and  hence  to  be  poor? 

3.  How  does  the  relief  of  the  country  help  or  hinder  in  getting  a 
living? 

4.  What  important  mineral  resources  are  lacking?  Why  are  min- 
erals not  brought  from  elsewhere? 

5.  Does  the  coast  line  tend  to  help  the  people  out  of  their  poverty 
or  keep  them  in  it?    Explain. 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  31 

6.  Would  more  manufacturing  improve  the  condition  of  the  inhabi- 
tants?   How?    Why  do  they  not  manufacture  more? 

7.  Does  the  beautiful  scenery  of  the  peninsulas  tend  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  people?    How? 

Conclusion. — (To  be  stated  in  the  form  of  a  brief  summary  of  the 
results  of  the  minor  problems.) 

Peoples  and  Countries. 

1.     The  relation  of  physical  features  to  distribution  of  races. 

No  detailed  study  of  the  races  of  Europe  is  practical  in  a  short  course 
in  geography.  It  is,  however,  desirable  to  point  out  and  to  discuss 
briefly  three  groups  of  the  European  peoples:  (1)  those  that  inhabit 
Mediterranean  countries ;  •  these  are  often  called  the  Mediterranean 
peoples,  and  for  the  most  part  speak  languages  derived  from  the  Latin ; 
(2)  those  that  inhabit  the  great  eastern  plain  or  lands  adjacent  thereto, 
and  speak  Slavic  languages;  (3)  those  that  inhabit  the  northwest  of 
Europe,  lands  touching  or  near  to  the  North  Sea;  these  people  speak 
Teutonic  or  closely  related  languages  and  are  often  called  Nordics. 
There  are  also  remnants  of  still  earlier  peoples — the  Celts — who  have 
been  pushed  to  the  very  western  extremities  of  the  continent,  and  are 
found  in  Brittany,  Wales,  Ireland,  and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland. 

Note  that  the  three  principal  groups  of  peoples  are  distributed  roughly 
according  to  the  natural  regions:  (1)  The  Mediterranean  or  Latin 
peoples  live  chiefly  in  the  Southern  Peninsulas.  Their  territory  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Central  Mountains,  but  where  the  moun- 
tains break  down  in  France  the  "Latins"  have  pressed  over  into  the 
Western  Lowland.  (2)  The  great  Eastern  Lowland  is  inhabited  largely 
by  Slavs.  (3)  The  Western  Lowland  is  the  main  home  of  the  Nordics. 
(4)  These  energetic  people  have  pressed  into  the  Northwestern  High- 
land, but  that  is  still  the  home  of  the  Celtic  people — the  ones  who 
have  been  forced  out  of  the  better  parts  of  Europe.  (5)  Finally,  the 
Southeastern  Plains  are  a  great  meeting-ground  of  races — some  Nor- 
dics in  Austria,  some  Latins  among  the  Rumanians,  many  Slavs,  espe- 
cially in  the  mountainous  border  regions,  and  the  Magyars,  an  Asiatic 
race,  in  the  center. 

The  principal  Mediterranean  peoples  of  Europe  speak  related  lan- 
guages and  are  mainly  Roman  Catholic  in  religion.  The  Slavic  peoples 
are  mostly  followers  of  the  Greek-Catholic  religion,  w'hile  the  Nordic 
peoples  are  mainly,  though  not  wholly,  Protestants. 


32  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

France  is  not  only  open  both  to  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Teutonic 
influences  but  in  its  rough  western  peninsula,  which  might  be  called 
part  of  the  Northwestern  Highland,  still  shows  the  effect  of  Celtic  in- 
fluence. No  other  country  in  Europe  is  open  to  so  great  a  variety  of 
influences. 

There  is  unquestionably  a  close  relationship  between  the  fact  that 
Europe  is  much  cut  up  physically  by  mountains  and  arms  of  the  sea, 
and  the  fact  that  it  is  highly  diverse  in  its  races  and  languages.  Where 
many  clear  natural  boundaries  exist  the  inhabitants  are  likely  to  remain 
distinct  in  habits  and  speech.  The  great  plain  of  Russia  with  its  com- 
parative uniformity  of  race,  speech,  and  habits  presents  a  strong  con- 
trast to  the  rest  of  Europe  in  this  respect. 

Problem. — Compare  a  political  map  of  Europe  before  the  war  with 
a  map  of  languages,  such  as  is  given  in  Dominian's  "Frontiers  of  Lan- 
guage and  Nationality  in  Europe."  Make  a  detailed  statement  as  to 
the  places  where  political  and  linguistic  frontiers  disagree  and  as  to 
the  part  played  by  these  places  in  the  war.  (See  also  problem  on 
"Boundaries,"  page  34.) 

2.     The  relation  of  physical  features  to  political  divisions. 

(1)  To  what  extent  have  the  peninsulas  of  Europe  given  rise  to 
different  nations?  Have  Spain  and  Portugal  always  been  separate? 
Are  their  similarities  or  their  differences  more  noticeable  (language,  re- 
ligion, ideals,  etc.)  ? 

(2)  Apply  the  same  questions  to  Norway  and  Sweden. 

(3)  Is  it  probable  that  Denmark  would  have  been  absorbed  into 
some  other  nation  if  it  had  not  been  so  well  defined  by  natural  boun- 
daries ? 

(4)  Recall  that  the  island  of  Britain  formerly  contained  three  dis- 
tinct countries — England,  Scotland,  and  Wales.  Recall  also  that  the 
English  crown  had  important  possessions  across  the  channel  in  France. 
Discuss  the  relation  of  geographical  or  natural  features  to  the  union 
of  Britain  under  one  rule,  and  to  the  loss  of  the  provinces  in  France. 
Ireland  is  much  less  perfectly  absorbed  into  the  United  Kingdom  than 
is  Wales  or  Scotland,  and  remains  more  distinctive  in  race  and  re- 
ligion. Discuss  the  extent  to  which  these  facts  are  connected  with 
Ireland's  complete  physical  separation  from  Britain. 

(5)  With  the  exception  of  Britain  (in  modern  times)  almost  every 
country  of  Europe  has  had  to  fight  foreign  enemies  on  its  own  soil, 
most  of  them  many  times ;  why  has  Britain  been  the  exception  ?  Point 
out  the  beneficial  results  of  this  upon  the  upbuilding  of  British  indus- 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE 


33 


tries.  Recall  from  history  how  often  the  other  countries  of  north- 
western Europe  have  been  overrun  by  armies ;  in  this  respect  contrast 
Britain  with  Belgium  and  northern  France  in  the  present  war. 

Practically  every  European  country  engaged  in  the  war  except  Britain 
expects  its  boundaries  to  be  changed  as  the  result  of  the  war.  Britain, 
alone,  of  the  European  nations  most  interested  in  the  war,  regards 
her  boundaries  as  satisfactory.  Explain  why  it  is  that  political  boun- 
daries at  variance  with  natural  boundaries  are  usually  unsatisfactory 
to  one  nation  or  the  other,  while  natural  boundaries  are  usually  ac- 
ceptable.    Give  illustrations. 

(6)  Poland  was  once  one  of  the  leading  nations  of  Europe,  but  it 
was  later  partitioned  among  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria.  Show  why 
the  physical  features  of  that  part  of  Europe  make  it  difficult  to  main- 
tain an  independent  nation  there.  What  is  meant  by  a  "buffer  state" 
and  why  is  the  lot  of  such  a  state  precarious  ?  Consider  the  history  of 
Belgium. 

(7)  Show  why  Switzerland,  though  it  touches  Italy,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Austria,  does  not  fear  for  its  territorial  integrity,  while 
Holland,  Denmark,  and  Belgium  are  always  in  danger. 

(8)  A  half  a  century  ago,  the  present  Italy  consisted  of  several  in- 
dependent states.  Why  was  it  practically  inevitable  that  they  should 
be  joined  into  a  "United  Italy"?  The  northeastern  boundary  of  Italy 
does  not  coincide  with  any  natural  line  of  demarkation ;  what  connec- 
tion had  this  with  Italy's  break  with  Austria  in  the  present  war? 

(9)  Many  people  consider  that,  unless  Germany's  power  is  com- 
pletely broken,  she  will  absorb  a  large  part  of  European  Russia;  show 
why,  in  consideration  of  topography,  this  seems  likely.  How  can  it 
be  prevented  ?    Give  reasons  why  it  should  or  should  not  be  prevented. 

(10)  Austria  is  the  most  disunited  nation  of  Europe.  Its  disin- 
tegration has  seemed  imminent  for  some  time.  Study  its  physical  fea- 
tures, and  decide  to  what  extent  they  make  for  disunion.  The  Hun- 
garians and  the  Bohemians  are  ardently  patriotic  in  respect  to  their 
own  lands  but  not  with  respect  to  the  Dual  Monarchy  itself  (Austria- 
Hungary).     Can  this  be  explained  in  the  light  of  physical  features? 

(11)  Study  the  physical  map  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  and  show 
how  its  topography  makes  for  disunion  and  conflicting  interests. 

(12)  North  Germany  is  a  plain  and  is  completely  dominated  by  one 
state — Prussia;  south  Germany  is  mountainous  and  is  made  of  several 
distinct  states  (e.  g.  the  kingdoms  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria,  and 
ftie  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden).  Is  there  any  sign  of  causal  connection 
here? 


34  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

Suggestions. — After  a  thorough  class  discussion  of  the  foregoing 
problems,  it  is  suggested  that  each  student  combine  his  conclusions  and 
deductions  into  a  theme,  "The  Relation  of  Europe's  Physical  Features 
to  Its  PoHtical  Divisions."  As  a  help  in  doing  this,  work  out  the  prob- 
lems on  boundaries  given  in  the  following  section: 

3.     The  effect  of  boundaries  on  international  relations. 

(1)  Relation  of  boundaries  to  physical  features. 

(a)  Make  a  table  showing  for  each  country  of  Europe  the  ap- 
proximate percentage  of  its  boundaries  consisting  of  each 
of  the  following  physical  features : 

(a)  Oceans  or  seas. 

(b)  High  or  impassable  mountains. 

(c)  Deserts  due  either  to  aridity  or  low  temperature. 

(d)  Rivers  too  broad  to  be  easily  bridged,  or  swamp  lands. 

(e)  Highlands  which  are  relatively  accessible  and  are 
inhabited. 

(f)  Lowlands  or  plains. 

(b)  Arrange  the  various  countries  in  order  according  to  the 
degree  to  which  their  physical  boundaries  genuinely  sep- 
arate them  from  their  neighbors. 

How  do  the  two  countries  whose  neutrality  was  guar- 
anteed before  the  Great  War  compare  with  one  another 
and  with  the  other  countries  in  this  respect? 

(2)  Relation  of  boundaries  to  races. 

(a)  Make  a  table  showing  the  extent  to  which  the  boundaries 
of  each  of  the  European  countries  agree  with  the  boun- 
daries between  races.  Arrange  the  table  under  the  fol- 
lowing headings: 

(1)  Name  of  country. 

(2)  Percentage  of  the  boundary  along  which  the  races 
of  one  or  the  other  of  the  adjacent  countries  extend 
over  into  the  next  country  to  any  appreciable  extent. 

(3)  Character  of  the  boundary  in  the  sections  where  the 
same  race  lives  to  an  appreciable  extent  on  both  sides. 

(b)  Arrange  the  countries  in  a  consecutive  list  showing  your 
opinion  as  to  the  degree  to  which  the  boundaries  agree 
with  the  boundaries  that  would  most  tend  to  promote 
peace.  Pay  special  attention  to  the  belligerents  in  the 
Great  War.     How  far  does  the  condition  of  the  bouq- 


EUROPE  AS  A    WHOLE  35 

daries  afford  an  explanation  of  the  readiness  with  which 

each  was  drawn  into  the  war? 

(4)  Contrast  the  poHtical  aspects  of  the  boundaries  of 
Europe  with  their  commercial  aspect.  For  example, 
compare  the  volume  of  trade  between  France  and 
Spain  with  the  volume  between  France  and  Germany, 
and  between  France  and  Italy.  Express  the  volume 
of  trade  in  percentages  of  the  total  for  each  country. 
In  the  same  way  compare  the  trade  between  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands  with  that  between  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  and  ascertain  what  physical  features 
cause  the  difference.  Make  a  special  comparison  of 
the  trade  of  Switzerland  with  its  four  great  neigh- 
bors, and  compare  this  with  the  nature  of  the  coun- 
try which  separates  the  Swiss  from  each  of  the  other 
nations. 

Occupations  and  Industries. 

Agriculture  in  Europe. 

Introduction. 
This  problem  and  several  others  illustrate  a  method  which  may  be 
used  for  many  subjects.  The  method  is  to  select  some  part  of  Europe 
as  ideal  or  typical  in  some  special  respect.  This  place  is  used  as  the 
center  around  which  the  study  of  the  whole  continent  may  be  grouped. 
The  first  step  is  to  go  to  various  reference  books  and  find  out  the 
facts  suggested  under  the  headings  given  below.  These  facts  should 
be  recorded  in  a  notebook  and,  so  far  as  possible,  should  be  put  in 
the  form  of  tables  or  of  brief,  clear  descriptions.  After  the  main 
facts  have  been  determined,  the  conclusions  to  which  they  lead  should 
be  stated.  When  the  central  or  typical  region  has  thus  been  studied 
the  students  may  undertake  a  similar  study  of  surrounding  regions, 
or  the  study  may  be  postponed  until  the  countries  are  taken  individu- 
ally. Whichever  method  is  followed  the  student  should  pay  special 
attentioa  to  the  changes  which  occur  as  one  goes  away  from  the  typical 
region.  For  example,  as  one  proceeds  north  a  change  of  one  kind 
will  be  found,  while  east  or  south  the  change  may  be  quite  different. 
Each  part  of  Europe,  so  far  as  possible,  should  be  studied  in  approxi- 
mately the  same  way,  so  that  when  conclusions  are  drawn  they  may 
include  a  comparison  of  the  typical  country  with  those  that  lie  around 
it  or  at  a  distance  from  it.    In  this  connection,  the  tables,  "The  Food 


2>6  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

of  Nations,"  on  page  38,  and  "Mineral  Production  in  Europe,"  on 
page  45,  will  be  found  useful. 

A.     French  agriculture  as  a  type. 

France  may  be  regarded  as  the  ideal  agricultural  country  of  Europe. 
The  reasons  for  considering  it  ideal  are  as  follows : 

1.  Its  great  variety  of  products. 

2.  The  relatively  intensive  quality  of  its  agriculture. 

3.  Its  capacity  to  support  animals. 

4.  Its  capacity  to  support  a  large  population  in  addition  to  the 
farmers. 

5.  Its  ability  to  bring  prosperity  to  the  farmer. 

In  order  to  find  how  true  these  five  propositions  actually  are,  the 
student  should  study  the  matter  statistically.  The  way  in  which  this 
should  be  done  is  suggested  below : 

(1)  From  the  encyclopedia,  Statesman's  Yearbook,  or  the  Atlas 
of  the  World  Agriculture,  make  a  list  of  the  five  chief  agricultural 
products  of  France  and  ascertain  what  percentage  of  the  total  is  rep- 
resented by  each  of  the  five.  The  full  significance  of  these  figures  will 
not  appear  until  other  countries  are  studied;  then  it  will  be  seen  that 
France  does  not  depend  nearly  so  much  upon  any  one  product  as  do 
many  of  the  other  countries. 

(2)  Find  the  yield  per  acre  and  the  yield  per  capita  of  the  five 
chief  agricultural  products.  Compare  these  with  the  yield  per  capita 
and  the  yield  per  acre  of  the  same  crops  in  the  United  States.  This 
will  bring  out  the  intensive  quality  of  French  agriculture.  The  im- 
portance of  this  will  appear  when  the  other  European  countries  are 
studied  in  the  same  way.    Consult  the  table  of  production  on  page  38. 

(3)  List  the  four  chief  animals,  the  percentage  which  each  animal 
forms  of  the  total,  and  the  number  of  each  animal  per  capita  of  the 
human  population.  Compare  this  with  similar  figures  for  the  United 
States. 

(4)  Ascertain  the  proportion  of  the  French  population  engaged  in 
agriculture  compared  with  the  number  in  the  four  other  chief  occupa- 
tions, such  as  manufacturing,  transportation,  commerce,  and  mining. 

B.     Physical  conditions  of  French  agriculture. 

Having  found  what  the  conditions  of  French  agriculture  are,  the 
next  step  is  to  determine  their  causes. 

1.     Climate. — Study    the    seasonal    rainfall    and    temperature,  the 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  2>7 

length  of  the  season  free  from  frost,  the  number  of  months  with  an 
average  temperature  of  60°  or  higher,  the  rainfall  during  these 
months,  the  extremes  of  temperature,  etc.  Make  tables  or  record 
the  observations  on  maps  as  far  as  possible.  Compare  these  tables 
with  similar  tables  for  your  own  home. 

2.  Soil. — Detailed  facts  as  to  soil  can  not  easily  be  procured,  but 
any  encyclopedia  or  good  general  description  of  the  country  will  give 
general  indications  as  to  the  nature  of  the  soil. 

3.  Relation  to  markets. — In  the  Atlas  of  World  Agriculture  locate 
the  areas  where  the  various  agricultural  products  are  found  in  great- 
est abundance.  Study  the  relation  of  these  to  the  areas  of  densest 
population  and  to  the  manufacturing  and.  commercial  centers,  which 
are  the  great  markets.  Study  the  relief  and  the  railroads  in  order 
to  determine  whether  it  is  easy  to  transport  the  agricultural  products 
to  the  markets. 

C.     The  French  peasants. 

Having  studied  the  actual  conditions  of  French  agriculture  and  the 
causes  of  its  prosperity,  the  next  step  is  to  know  what  effect  these 
conditions  have  upon  the  peasants.  This  study  will  be  less  specific 
than  that  which  has  preceded  but  can  be  made  definite  by  considering 
iHe  following  points  and  setting  down  results  for  comparison  with 
similar  facts  with  regard  to  people  of  other  regions :  Style  of  houses, 
dress,  transportation,  household  customs,  education,  religion,  amuse- 
ments, etc.  Get  the  facts  from  the  encyclopedia,  books  of  travel,  per- 
sonal experience,  etc. 

D.     Agriculture  outside  of  France. 

After  agriculture  in  France  has  been  studied  as. the  type,  French 
agriculture  should  be  compared  with  that  of  other  parts  of  Europe. 
The  outline  given  above  for  France  may  be  used.  In  order  to  bring 
ont  the  geographical  relationships,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  work  outward 
from  France  in  various  directions.  When  the  facts  as  to  agriculture 
in  any  o^hQX  part  of  Europe  have  been  ascertained,  they  will  have 
much  more  significance  if  compared  with  similar  conditions  in  the 
type  country.  Pay  special  attention  to  the  differences  in  climate,  soil, 
and  relation  to  markets,  which  are  the  root  of  the  differences  in  the 
actual  conditions  of  agriculture. 

For  this  part  of  the  subject  the  following  geographical  outline  has 
been  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  there  is  a  gradual  change  from  the 


38 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE 


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THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE  39 

conditions  in  France  to  those  in  the  various  more  extreme  parts  of 
Europe : 

1.  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland. — Contrast  the  potatoes  and  pigs 
of  Ireland  or  the  oats  and  sheep  of  Scotland  with  the  varied  and  well- 
balanced  products  of  France.  Tie  up  these  conditions  *with  the  rain- 
fall, temperature,  topography,  location  of  markets,  etc.  Study  emi- 
gration from  both  countries  in  relation  to  agriculture  and  rainfall; 
effect  on  character  of  peasants ;  absentee  landlords ;  Scotch  shooting 
preserves,  etc.  Discuss  the  ways  in  which  England  is  intermediate 
between  France  and  Ireland  or  Scotland. 

2.  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  Denmark,  and  Scandinavia. — Note 
the  increase  in  the  importance  of  animals — dairying  in  Holland  and 
Denmark,  sheep  and  cattle  .in  Norway,  and  reindeer  in  Lapland.  Study 
the  relation  of  this  increase  to  temperature,  rainfall,  grasslands,  etc., 
and  its  effect  on  mode  of  life,  education,  cleanliness,  and  other  habits. 

3.  Northern  Germany,  western  Russia,  eastern  Russia,  and  Siberia. 
— Note  the  increase  in  root  crops,  potatoes,  rye,  etc. ;  gradual  decline 
in  activity  and  progressiveness  of  peasants;  greater  concentration  in 
villages. 

4.  Southern  Germany,  Austria,  Rumania,  Bulgaria  or  Serbia,  Tur- 
key, and  Greece. — Note  that  the  change  in  this  direction  is  slower  than 
in  any  other.  Yet  there  is  a  most  striking  contrast  between  the  agri- 
culture of  northern  France  with  its  varied  crops  and  animals  and  its 
thrifty  peasants,  and  Turkish  or  Greek  agriculture  with  its  sparse 
and  unfertilized  fields  of  wheat  and  barley,  its  sheep  and  buffaloes, 
and  its  dull,  careless  peasants  living  in  adobe  houses.  Make  a  careful 
study  of  dry  summers  and  their  effect. 

5.  North  Italy  and  Sicily. — Here  irrigation  and  its  effects  form 
the  dominant  note.  Study  Sicily  in  contrast  with  the  Po  Valley  and 
note  the  striking  contrast. 

6.  Spain. — Note  that  here,  as  in  all  the  outlying  and  less  pros- 
perous countries,  the  tables  for  crops  and  animals  show  an  increasing 
reliance  upon  animals,  an  increasing  specialization  upon  a  few  crops, 
and  a  decline  in  the  general  prosperity  and  enlightenment  of  the 
peasants. 

Forestry  in  Europe. 
General  relations. 
The  distribution  of  the  principal  forest  areas  of  Europe  is  a  response 
to  various  geographic  and  nongeographic  influences.     Foremost  among 


40  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

these  influences  are  climate,  topography,  soil,  and  artificial  preservation. 

To  appreciate  the  influence  of  climate  on  forest  production,  one 
should  be  able  to  contrast  the  luxuriant  forest  growths  of  cool,  moist 
northwestern  Europe  with  the  comparatively  treeless  plains  of  south 
Russia  or  witji  the  scattered  forests  of  the  Mediterranean  countries. 

At  the  time  o£  the  Roman  penetration  into  northwestern  Europe, 
that  region  was  mainly  forested.  The  forests  slowly  disappeared  as 
agriculture  claimed  the  more  suitable  areas,  until  the  districts  now  in 
forest  are  principally  as  follows : 

(1)  Regions  having  a  climate  too  cool  for  agriculture, 

(2)  Regions  too  rough  or  steep  to  be  readily  tilled. 

(3)  Regions  where  the  soil  is  too  poor  to  yield  profitable  returns 
under  the  plow. 

(4)  Game  preserves  or  other  areas  kept  as  parks  by  the  landed 
artistocracy. 

(5)  Regions  where  agriculture  is  profitable,  but  where  tracts  of 
forest  are  preserved  for  the  sake  of  a  timber  supply. 

With  the  help  of  the  following  statements  and  suggestions  and  with 
a  map  of  the  vegetation  of  Europe  before  »you,  prepare  a  sketch  map 
showing  where  each  of  the  above  types  is  chiefly  located. 

Game  preserves  and  parks  are  particularly  numerous  in  Great  Britain 
and  Germany.  France  and  especially  Germany  are  notable  for  the 
high  development  of  the  art  of  forestry  and  for  their  artificial  timber 
preserves.  On  the  sandy  plains  of  northern  Germany  and  in  portions 
of  Belgium,  forests  are  abundant  because  of  the  poverty  of  the  soil. 
The  isolated  mountain  ridges  of  south  Germany,  the  concentric  ridges 
of  eastern  France,  and  above  all  the  higher  mountains  of  south  and 
central  Europe  contain  the  principal  forest  regions  of  central  Europe. 
The  northern  half  of  Russia  and  northern  Scandinavia  contain  by  far 
the  largest  forests  of  the  continent. 

The  Forests  of  Szveden. 
Although  the  forestry  of  Sweden  dififers  in  many  ways  from  that  of 
the  rest  of  Europe,  Sweden  may  be  considered  the  typical  forest  coun- 
try of  Europe.  North  of  the  60th  parallel  the  slopes  of  the  Scan- 
dinavian Highlands  are  composed  of  rocks  which  yield  comparatively 
poor  soils.  The  region  is  also,  for  the  most  part,  beyond  the  climatic 
range  of  most  agricultural  crops.  In  this  region,  which  comprises 
more  than  half  of  the  country,  are  found  vast  forests  of  fir  and  pine 
covering  all  but  the  highest  summits. 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  41 

Numerous  parallel  streams  falling  into  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  furnish 
the  necessary  transportation  for  the  logs  and  timber  products.  Sweden 
has  more  than  a  thousand  sawmills,  many  of  which  are  along  the 
coast  and  most  of  which  are  run  by  water  power  developed  in  these 
same  streams.  The  forest  lands  which  cover  more  than  half  the  area 
of  the  country  are  both  privately  and  publicly  owned.  The  forest  in- 
dustry is  carried  on  under  government  supervision  and  by  methods 
of  scientific  conservation.  The  forest  products  of  the  country  reflect 
both  the  abundance  of  timber  and  the  relative  abundance  of  labor. 
Indicative  of  the  former  are  such  products  as  railway  ties,  mine  tim- 
bers, and  crude  lumber.  Reflecting  the  abundance  of  labor,  we  have 
exports  of  such  manufactured  wood  products  as  paper  pulp  and 
matche-^.  The  total  value  of  exported  timber,  pulp,  and  other  forest 
products  in  1915  was  approximately  $100,000,000.  This  large  figure 
ranks  forest  products  first  in  Sweden's  list  of  exports  and  makes 
Sweden  the  principal  exporter  of  forest  products  in  Europe. 

Prepare  similar  descriptions  of  forestry  in  Russia  and  in  Germany. 
Ascertain  the  effect  of  the  war  in  diminishing  the  forest  reserves  of 
central  Europe. 

Mineral  Resources  of  Europe. 
Resources  of  individual  countries.      (See  table,  page  45.) 
England. 

Compared  with  world  production,  what  minerals  does  England  pro- 
duce in  appreciable  quantity? 

What  are  the  principal  minerals  and  where  are  the  deposits  located 
with  reference  to  geographical  position  and  transportation  routes? 

What  mineral  does  England  produce  in  greater  quantity  than  any 
other  European  country,  and  where  are  the  deposits  located? 

Of  what  minerals  has  England  enough  to  export,  and  what  Euro- 
pean countries  need  them? 

What  is  the  importance  of  England's  mineral  industries  as  compared 
with  her  other  industries? 

What  minerals  does  England  need  to  import,  and  from  what  coun- 
tries, not  necessarily  European,  may  she  obtain  them? 

Spain. 

What  minerals  are  produced  in  large  amounts  in  the  Spanish 
Peninsula  ? 

Compared  with  world  production  and  with  production  in  other 
European  countries,  in  what  minerals  does  Spain  excel? 


42  ^   THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

What  are  the  principal  minerals,  and  where  are  they  located  geo- 
graphically and  with  reference  to  transportation  routes? 

How  does  the  mineral  industry  of  Spain  compare  in  importance  with 
other  industries? 

What  is  the  influence  of  water  supply  on  mining  and  other  indus- 
tries?   What  controls  the  water  supply? 

What  are  the  principal  mineral  exports,  and  how  do  they  compare 
with  imports? 

What  is  the  present  importance  of  the  pyrite  industry? 

France. 

What  are  the  principal  mineral  deposits,  and  where  are  they  located 
with  reference  to  transportation  routes? 

Judged  by  relative  production,  how  does  France  compare  with  Ger- 
many and  with  Great  Britain  in  resources  of  coal  and  iron? 

How  is  the  location  of  the  coal  and  iron  deposits  related  to  the 
seat  of  the  steel  industry,  and  what  bearing  has  such  relationship 
upon  the  cost  of  production  of  steel?  (See  encyclopedia  for  location 
of  steel  industry.) 

What  bearing  has  the  location  of  the  coal  and  iron  deposits  upon 
the  international  relations  between  France  and  Germany?  (See  en- 
cyclopedia article  on  Franco- Prussian  War.) 

What  is  the  relative  position  of  the  mineral  industry  in  France  as 
compared  with  other  industries? 

What  minerals  has  France  for  export  ? 

What  minerals  must  she  import,  and  from  what  European  countries 
may  she  obtain  them? 

Germany. 

Note  the  mineral  production  of  Germany  in  comparison  with  world 
production.     In  what  minerals  is  she  strong;  in  w'hat  weak? 

Study  the  distribution  of  the  coal  and  iron  deposits,  distinguishing 
between  brown  coal  and  coking  coal.  How  are  these  deposits  related 
to  transportation  routes  and  to  the  centers  of  the  steel  industry? 

Compare  relative  distances  between  coal  and  iron  deposits  in  Ger- 
many and  in  France  and  the  location  of  the  steel  industry  in  those 
countries  with  similar  relations  in  the  United  States. 

Compare  the  iron  and  coal  production  of  Germany  with  that  of 
Great  Britain. 

What  effect  has  this  production  on  the  relative  importance  of  the 
steel  industry  in  the  two  countries? 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  43 

In  what  mineral  is  Germany  preeminent  among  countries  of  the 
world  ?  Where  are  the  deposits  Jocated  geographically  and  with  ref- 
erence 10  transportation  facilities? 

How  has  the  location  of  mineral  deposits  affected  Germany's  mili- 
tary activities  in  the  present  war;  in  previous  wars?  (See  encyclo- 
pedia articles  on  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  Franco-Prussian 
War.) 

How  does  Germany's  copper  production  compare  with  that  of  the 
world;  what  country  would  normally  supply  its  needs? 

Note  Germany's  production  of  manganese  ore,  essential  for  steel 
manufacture.  What  European  countries  furnish  the  needed  supply, 
and  what  is  the  best  transportation  route? 

What  is  Germany's  natural  source  for  oil? 

How  does  Germany's  mineral  industry  compare  in  importance  with 
agriculture  and  other  industries? 

The  Netherlands  and  Belgium. 

What  are  the  principal  minerals  produced  in  the  Netherlands  and 
in  Belgium;  how  are  they  located  geographically  and  with  reference 
to  means  of  transportation? 

How  are  these  deposits  located  with  reference  to  similar  deposits  of 
France  and  Germany? 

How  does  Belgium's  mineral  industry  compare  with  her  agriculture 
and  other  industries? 

What  minerals  does  Belgium  import? 

Note:  Belgium's  zinc  and  iron-smelting  industries  furnish  an  ex- 
ample of  the  persistence  and  development  of  an  industry  through 
favorable  conditions  of  location  or  transportation  after  the  original 
cause  of  its  establishment  has  become  largely  inoperative. 

Austria  and  Hungary. 

What  are  the  principal  minerals,  compared  with  world  production? 
Where  are  the  deposits  located  geographically  and  with  reference  to 
transportation  facilities?  ? 

In  what  mineral  do  Austria  and  Hungary  excel,  and  where  is  it 
located  ? 

How  does  the  mineral  industry  compare  in  importance  with  agri- 
culture and  other  industries? 

What  minerals  may  be  exported ;  what  imported  ? 

What  countries  are  likely  to  be  the  sources  of  the  mineral  imports? 


44  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

Italy. 

Where  are  Italy's  coal  and  iron  deposits  located?  Compare  Italy's 
production  of  coal  and  iron  with  that  of  France,  Germany,  and 
England. 

What  country  would  normally  supply  Italy's  needs  in  respect  to 
these  minerals? 

Of  what  minerals  is  Italy  an  important  producer?  Where  are  the 
deposits  located,  and  how  are  they  related  to  transportation  routes? 

How  does  Italy's  mineral  industry  compare  in  importance  with  other 
industries? 

What  minerals  does  Italy  export;  what  import? 

Balkan  States. 

What  is  the  relative  importance  of  Greece,  Rumania,  and  Servia  in 
mineral  production  compared  with  world  production? 

What  are  the  principal  minerals  of  each  country,  and  where  are 
the  deposits  located  geographically  and  with  respect  to  transporta- 
tion facilities? 

What  is  the  relative  importance  of  the  mineral  industry  in  these 
countries  as  compared  with  other  industries? 

What  bearing  have  the  mineral  deposits  of  these  countries  upon  mili- 
tary activity  in  the  present  war? 

Turkey. 

Compare  the  mineral  production  of  Turkey  with  that  of  other  Euro- 
pean countries;  what  are  the  principal  mineral  products,  and  where 
are  the  deposits  located? 

The  mineral  resources  of  Asia  Minor  are  said  to  be  great.  What 
factors  tend  to  prevent  their  exploitation  and  development?  (See  en- 
cyclopedia.) 

Scandinavia. 

In  proportion  to  world  production  what  are  the  most  important 
mineral  products  of  Norway  and  Sweden? 

Where  are  these  deposits  located  geographically  and  with  respect 
to  transportation  facilities? 

Is  Scandinavia's  fuel  supply  sufficient;  where  is  it  located? 

What  is  the  relative  importance  of  the  mineral  industry  compared 
with  other  industries? 

What  minerals  are  exported;  what  imported? 

What  countries  receive  most  of  the  mineral  exports  and  supply  the 
imports  ? 


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46  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

Russia. 

In  what  mineral  products  does  Russia  lead  the  world? 

Where  are  these  deposits  located,  and  how  are  they  related  to  means 
of  transportation? 

In  what  minerals  does  Russia  excel  other  European  countries  ? 

Where  are  these  deposits  located,  and  how  are  they  related  to  means 
of  transportation? 

What  bearing  have  these  deposits  upon  military  activity  in  the  pres- 
ent war? 

What  is  the  relative  importance  of  the  mineral  industry  to  agricul- 
ture and  other  industries? 

What  influences  tend  to  oppose  the  development  of  Russian  mineral 
resources  ? 

European  Mineral  Localities. 

The  principal  mineral  localities  in  European  countries  are  as  follows 
(the  chief  locality  is  shown  by  italics)  : 

United  Kingdom:  coal — Newcastle,  Glasgow,  Cardiff:  iron — Cleve- 
land, Lincolnshire,  Northamptonshire,  Cumberland,  Lancashire; 
tungsten — Cornwall;  bauxite — Antrim;  tin — Cornwall;  salt — near 
Liverpool. 

France:  coal — Valenciennes;  petroleum — Aumance  (Allier),  Autnn; 
iron — French  Lorraine;  tungsten — Limousin- Auvergne ;  lead  and  zinc 
— Dept.  of  Gard;  gold — LaLucette;  phosphate — near  Arras;  pyrite — 
Sain  Bel  (Lyon)  ;  bauxite — Provence;  antimony — LaLucette;  graphite 
— Hautes-Alpes ;  salt — Meurthe  et  Moselle. 

Germany:  coal — Ruhr,  Lower  Lausitz,  Lower  Rhine,  Thuringia, 
Upper  Silesia,  Saar;  petroleum — Alsace,  Bavaria  and  Hanover;  iron 
— German  Lorraine,  Luxemburg,  Siegerland,  Nassau-Upper  Hesse; 
nickel — Frankenstein ;  tungsten — Erzgebirge ;  molybdenum — Sadisdorf ; 
copper — Mansfeld;  lead  and  zinc — Upper  Silesia,  Rhine,  Erzgebirge, 
Hartz;  silver — Mansfeld;  potash — Strassfurt,  Alsace;  pyrite — Meg- 
gen  (Westphalia);  graphite — Passau;  salt — Prussia. 

Austria-Hungary:  coal — Bohemia  (brown  coal).  Upper  Silesia 
(coking  coal);  petroleum — Galicia,  Vienna;  iron — Steiermark;  tung- 
sten— Erzgebirge ;  molybdenum — Miess ;  copper,  lead,  zinc — Miess; 
gold — Zalatna  district;  silver — Bohemia;  mercury — Idria;  graphite — 
Bohemia,  Styria,  Moravia,  et  al. ;  magnesite — Veitsch  (Steiermark); 
salt — Galicia. 

Russia:  coal — Donets,  Moscow;  petroleum — Baku,  Grosny,  Maikop; 
iron — Krivoi-Rog  (iron  ore),  Nikopol,  Tchiature,  Kutais  (manganese 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  47 

ore),  Urals  (chromic  iron);  copper— Urals,  Kedabek;  platinum,  gold 
— 'Urals  (and  Siberia)  ;  phosphate — Moscow;  pyrite — Ufa;  mercury — 
Nikitovka  (Donetz  Basin)  ;  salt — Ekaterinoslaf. 

Belgium:  coal — Mons,  Charleroi,  et  al. 

Italy :  petroleum — Parma  and  Piacenza ;  iron — Piedmont,  Elba ;  cop- 
per— Tuscany;  lead,  zinc — Sardinia;  gold — Piedmont;  silver — Sar- 
dinia; pyrite — Tuscany;  sulphur — Sicily;  mercury — Mount  Amiata; 
bauxite — Lecce ;  graphite — Pinerolo ;  salt — Sicily,  Calabria. 

Norway:  nickel — Evje;  copper — Roros,  Foldalen,  et  al.;  silver — 
Kongsberg ;  pyrite — Trondhj  em. 

Sweden:  coal — Malmohus  and  Kristiansted ;  iron — Norbotten 
(Kiruna,  et  al),  Grangesberg;  copper,  lead,  zinc — Ammeberg  (Got- 
land) ;  pyrite — Falun. 

Spain :  coal — Oviedo ;  iron — Vizcaya;  tungsten — Pontevedra ;  molyb- 
denum— Granada. 

Spain  and  Portugal:  copper — Huelva;  lead — Linares-La-Carolina, 
Murcia;  silver — Linares-La-Carolina;  potash — Cardona;  pyrite — 
Huelva;  mercury — Almaden;  salt — Cadis,  Alicante. 

The  Netherlands :  coal — Heerlen  and  Kerkrade. 

Switzerland:  salt — Rhone  Valley. 

Rumania :  oil — Prahova  ( Wallac'hia)  ;  salt — Valcea,  Bacau. 

Servia:  copper — Bor  (Nish)  ;  pyrite — Majdan  Pek. 

Greece:  iron — Thessaly;  lead,  zinc — Laurium;  pyrite — Saloniki; 
magnesite — Euboea ;  salt — Laurium. 

Turkey:  copper — Arghana  Maden;  lead — Aleppo,  Kossova,  Kona; 
zinc — Adana;  gold — Thessaly  and  Macedonia;  silver,  lead — Aleppo, 
Kossova. 

The  war  uses  of  these  minerals  and  the  relative  independence  of 
the  United  States,  so  far  as  minerals  are  concerned,  are  discussed  in 
Chapter  VIII  of  Military  Geology  and  Topography,  listed  among  the 
reference  books. 

Manufacturing  in  Europe. 

Europe  is  particularly  fitted  to  be  a  manufacturing  country  in  each 
of  the  following  respects:  (1)  climate,  (2)  agricultural  possibilities 
at  home,  (3)  topography  or  relief,  (4)  mineral  resources,  and  (5) 
the  possibility  of  bringing  food  and  raw  materials  from  abroad.  In 
practically  every  one  of  these  it  is  more  favored  than  any  of  the  other 
continents.  In  order  to  see  how  far  this  is  true,  work  out  the  fol- 
lowing problems. 

A.     Determine  the  extent  to  which  the  different  countries  of  Europe 


48  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

are  engaged  in  manufacturing  industries,  and  compare  this  with  the 
figures  for  other  countries.  From  the  encyclopedia  or  other  reference 
book  make  a  table  showing  the  approximate  value  per  capita  of  the 
exports  of  manufactured  goods  from  ten  or  more  countries  of  Europe, 
and  from  the  United  States,  Canada,  Mexico,  Venezuela,  Argentina, 
Brazil,  Japan,  China,  Siam,  India,  and  Persia.  Exports  are  used  rather 
than  the  actual  total  of  manufactured  goods  because  statistics  of  ex- 
ports are  readily  available,  while  those  of  total  manufactures  are  not 
kept  in  most  countries.  The  per  capita  basis  is  necessary  in  order  that 
the  degree  of  manufacturing  in  small  countries  may  be  fairly  com- 
pared with  that  in  large. 

On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  place  in  their  proper  locations  the 
per  capita  figures  for  each  of  the  twenty  countries  in  your  table. 
Shade  the  five  having  the  largest  figures.  Use  another  and  lighter 
kind  of  shading  for  the  next  five,  and  a  still  lighter  kind  for  the 
third  five. 

B.  You  now  have  before  you  a  map  showing  the  approximate  dis- 
tribution of  manufacturing  industries*  The  next  step  is  to  compare 
this  distribution  with  the  five  geographical  conditions  mentioned  at 
the  beginning  of  this  exercise.  Turn  back  to  the  problem  on  the  cli- 
mate of  Europe,  page  16.  On  the  map  prepared  in  that  exercise 
how  do  the  areas  where  the  climate  is  most  favorable  to  human  health 
and  activity  compare  with  the  areas  where  manufacturing  is  carried 
on  mos^-  largely  ?    What  conclusion  do  you  draw  from  this  ? 

C.  Turn  to  the  Atlas  of  World  Agriculture  and  to  the  table  of 
food  production,  page  38.  From  these  determine  how  the  countries 
that  are  most  heavily  shaded  on  your  manufacturing  map  compare  with 
the  others  in  the  following  respects:  (1)  the  total  production  of  staple 
crops,  such  as  wheat,  barley,  rye,  oats,  sugar,  and  rice;  (2)  the  total 
number  of  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep;  (3)  the  per  capita  production  of 
staple  crops  and  of  animals ;  and  (4)  the  per  acre  production  of  crops 
and  animals.  How  far  does  this  comparison  indicate  that  even  if  no 
food  were  imported  from  abroad  the  countries  that  are  prominent  in 
manufacturing  would  be  able  to  produce  food  enough  for  a  compara- 
tively dense  population,  and  thus  would  have  a  good  labor  supply  to 
furnish  the  necessary  workmen  for  factories? 

D.  The  relation  of  relief  to  manufacturing  depends  largely  upon 
transportation  and  will  be  discussed  in  a  succeeding  section.  Turn 
back,  however,  to  the  problem  on  the  relief  of  Europe,  page  15. 
What  relation  do  the  five  countries  where  manufacturing  is  most  highly 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE  49 

developed,  that  is,  where  the  per  capita  production  is  highest,  bear 
to  the  western  lowland?  In  each  of  the  five  countries  make  a  Hst 
of  the  manufacturing  cities  having  a  population  of  over  200,000. 
Where  are  they  located  in  reference  to  the  plain?  What  does  this 
indicate  as  to  the  relation  of  relief  to  manufacturing? 

E,  In  order  to  determine  whether  the  presence  of  coal  and  iron 
are  determining  factors  in  the  development  of  manufacturing,  turn  to 
the  encyclopedia  or  Stateman's  Yearbook,  and  prepare  a  table  showing 
in  parallel  columns  the  production  of  (1)  coal,  (2)  iron  ore,  and  (3) 
iron,  in  each  of  the  following  countries:  Britain,  Belgium,  Germany, 
France,  Spain,  Norway,  Sweden,  the  Netherlands,  Austria-Hungary, 
and  Russia.  Convert  these  figures  into  a  per  capita  basis.  On  this 
basis  how  closely  do  the  five  countries  that  stand  highest  (a)  in  coal, 
(b)  in  iron  ore,  and  (c)  in  iron  compare  with  the  five  that  stand  high- 
est in  manufacturing?  What  do  you  conclude  from  this  as  to  the  rela- 
tive value  of  coal  and  of  iron  ore  in  stimulating  manufacturing?  Re- 
member that  aside  from  human  energy  iron  and  coal  are  the  two  great 
essentials  of  manufacturing.  Does  the  table  indicate  that  manufactur- 
ing flourishes  most  in  coal  regions  or  in  regions  where  iron  ore  is 
produced?  Does  it  show  that  iron  ore  goes  to  the  coal  fields  to  be 
smelted  or  that  the  coal  goes  to  the  iron  mines? 

F.  The  possibility  of  bringing  food  and  raw  materials  from  abroad 
has  already  been  shown  in  the  problem  on  the  position  of  Europe 
(page  14).  In  order  to  bring  out  the  facts  more  clearly  prepare 
a  table  showing  the  five  chief  imports  of  the  five  countries  that  are 
most  heavily  shaded  on  your  manufacturing  map.  What  is  the  nature 
of  the  imports  to  the  manufacturing  countries?  How  do  the  imports 
compare  in  character  and  value  per  capita  with  the  imports  to  the  non- 
manufacturing  countries?  If  these  imports  were  cut  off  what  would 
be  the  effect  upon  the  life  of  the  people  in  the  two  sets  of  countries? 

European  Transportation. 

A.  Europe  is  a  natural  center  of  transportation.  In  order  to  see 
how  much  it  excels  all  the  other  continents  in  this  respect : 

1.  Compare  the  railroad  mileage  of  Europe  with  that  of  the  United 
States  (a)  per  100  square  miles,  (b)  per  100  population. 

2.  Compare  the  length  of  the  coast  lines  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States. 

3.  Compare  the  mileage  of  navigable  rivers  in  Europe  and  the 
United  States. 


50  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

4.     Compare  the  mileage  of  canals  in  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

B.  One  of  Europe's  great  advantages  is  the  ease  with  which  coal 
and  iron,  the  two  greatest  fundamentals  of  manufacture,  can  be 
brought  to  the  seacoast.  In  order  to  appreciate  the  importance  of 
this  factor  make  the  following  investigation: 

1.  Ascertain  the  distance  from  the  sea  to  the  chief  British,  French, 
Belgian,  and  German  coal  fields.  Compare  this  with  the  distance  from 
tidewater  to  the  coal  fields  of  Pittsburgh,  Colorado,  Western  Canada, 
and  Russia.  Compare  the  European  distances  with  the  distances  from 
the  Pittsburgh  coal  fields  to  Boston.  Also  compare  the  chances  to 
use  water  transportation  from  these  different  fields. 

2.  Compare  the  distance  and  difficulty  of  getting  iron  ore  from 
the  shores  of  Lake  Superior— for  example,  from  Hibbing,  Minn. — to 
Pittsburgh,  Buffalo,  and  Chicago  with  the  distance  and  difficulty  of 
getting  it  either  from  northern  Sweden  by  way  of  a  Norwegian  port, 
or  from  Bilbao  to  Glasgow  in  Scotland,  New  Castle  in  England,  or 
Cardiff  in  Wales. 

.C.  From  the  encyclopedia,  the  Statesman's  Yearbook,  or  the  table 
in  this  book  (page  45),  prepare  a  table  showing  in  parallel  columns 
the  production  of  (1)  iron  ore,  (2)  iron,  and  (3)  coal  in  each  of  the 
following  countries :  the  United  Kingdom,  Belgium,  Germany,  France, 
Spain,  Norway,  Sweden,  the  Netherlands,  Italy,  Austria  and  Hungary, 
and  Russia. 

What  does  this  show  as  to  the  relative  importance  of  ore  and  coal  in 
the  production  of  iron?  Add  to  your  table  a  column  showing  the 
amount  of  coal  imported  to  each  country  and  the  approximate  source 
of  the  coal.  What  does  this  suggest  as  to  the  extent  to  which  coal  is 
taken  to  the  ore  compared  with  the  extent  to  which  the  ore  is  taken 
to  the  coal. 

Now  add  to  the  table  the  imports  of  cotton,  lumber,  and  grain.  Does 
the  amount  of  the  last  three  products  depend  on  the  amount  of  coal? 
What  does  this  indicate  as  to  the  relation  of  a  supply  of  coal  and 
hence  of  mechanical  power  to  the  character  and  volume  of  imports? 

Sum  up  the  result  of  this  by  stating  how  the  easy  conditions  of  trans- 
portation in  Europe  tend  to  increase  manufacturing  by  their  effect 
upon  the  movement  of  coal,  iron,  cotton,  lumber  and  grain. 

D.  One  of  the  most  striking  conditions  in  the  present  war  has  been 
the  effect  of  paralyzation  of  transportation  in  Russia.  In  order  to 
understand  this,  picture  what  would  happen  in  the  United  States  if  the 
Great  Lakes  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  were  closed  for  a  few  years.  Then 


EUROPE  AS  A   WHOLE 


51 


suppose  that  the  Atlantic  ports  were  also  closed.  Call  to  mind  the 
railroad  freight  situation  during  1918,  and  try  to  make  an  estimate  of 
the  chief  kinds  of  business  that  would  be  paralyzed  under  such  condi- 
tions. Remember  that  both  imports  and  exports  would  be  cut  off  from 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  and  from  much  of  Canada.  Remember,  too, 
that  while  the  United  States  is  3,000  miles  wide  and  has  half  a  dozen 
transcontinental  railroads,  Russia  and  Siberia  form  a  land  mass  twice 
as  wide  and  have  only  one  transcontinental  railroad. 


P 


PART  II 

THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE. 

The  British  Isles. 

I.  The  Insularity  of  Britain  and  Its  Relation  to  the  Character  of  the 
British  People. 

General  statement — ^Unlike  the  other  countries  of  Europe  the  United 
Kingdorri  is  insular.  Not  only  was  England  far  removed  from  the 
early  civilizations  of  the  Mediterranean  and  central  and  western 
Europe,  but  it  was  separated  by  the  "silver  streak"  of  the  English 
Channel  and  by  the  North  Sea  from  ready  contact  with  these  earlier 
civilizations  on  the  continent.  This  isolation  from  the  rest  of  Europe 
is  largely  responsible  for  the  late  entrance  of  England  as  a  strong 
force  into  the  affairs  of  Europe.  For  many  centuries  England  was 
a  pastoral  country,  little  known,  without  trade  or  commerce  except  as 
the  trade  was  carried  on  by  continental  peoples  who  came  to  the  out- 
of-the-way  British  shores  for  what  small  trade  they  could  secure.  The 
invasions  of  England  by  north  European  peoples — the  Danes,  Angles, 
Saxons,  and  Normans — were  so  widely  spaced  in  time  and  so  limited 
in  extent  because  of  the  water  boundaries  that  there  was  given  the 
opportunity  for  the  welding  together  of  all  into  a  more  or  less  homo- 
geneous group  on  the  lowland  sections  of  England.  Only  in  the  dis- 
tant highlands  of  Wales  and  Scotland  and  on  the  still  more  isolated 
island  of  Ireland  were  the  aboriginal  or  older  races  and  customs  given 
a  chance  to  survive,  as  they  have  done  in  the  distinctive  groups  of 
people — the  Welch,  Scotch,  and  Irish. 

But  while  the  water  separated  England  from  the  continent  it  did 
not  wholly  isolate.  Not  only  did  various  peoples  from  time  to  time 
cross  the  narrow  channel,  bringing  new  blood  and  new  ideas  to  the 
island,  but  as  Europe  developed  in  civilization  England  soon  felt  the 
new  influences  and  was  greatly  affected  by  them.  In  fact,  as  England 
grew  in  power,  as  she  absorbed  or  developed  a  new  civilization,  she 
even  attempted  to  extend  her  control  across  the  channel  to  French 
soil.  But  the  strength  of  the  natural  water  boundaries  asserted  it- 
self, and  Britain  again  became  and  has  remained  wholly  insular,  de- 

52 


THE   COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  53 

veloping  her  own  language,  institutions,  and  customs  that  mark  off 
England's  culture  from  that  of  the  continent  as  sharply  as  the  water 
boundaries  make  a  physical  separation. 

But  while  the  separating  waters  left  the  English  destinct  from  Europe 
racially  and  politically,  England  was  able  to  profit  commercially  and 
intellectually  by  her  close  proximity  to  the  mainland.  This  advantage 
was  further  increased  by  the  fact  that  England  lies  opposite  the  great 
rich  lowland  region  of  Europe  with  its  rivers  all  pointing  toward  the 
similarly  rich  lowlands  and  rivers  of  England.  The  plains  of  England 
and  of  Europe  face  each  other,  inviting  commerce.  It  might  be 
thought  that  this  fact  would  bring  no  greater  advantage  to  England 
than  to  the  countries  lying  opposite  on  the  continent.  But  it  is  here 
that  the  value  of  England's  separation  is  made  clear.  While  the  rich 
open  plains  of  the  continent  were  overrun  with  armies,  England  was 
protected  from  invasion  by  the  separating  waters.  Hence,  the  Eng- 
lish could  develop  in  peace,  while  their  neighbors  across  the  channel 
were  destroying  each  others  cities  and  crops  and  population.  Eng- 
land's insular  position  meant  centuries  of  peace  to  England,  while  all 
the  rest  of  Europe  was  again  and  again  devastated  by  war.  Further- 
more, since  the  surrounding  waters  were  a-  natural  protection,  England 
had  no  need  of  a  large  army,  such  as  has  so  long  drained  the  man- 
power of  the  continental  nations.  A  powerful  navy,  to  be  sure,  has 
developed  as  Britain's  military  protection,  but  even  a  large  navy  makes 
relatively  small  demands  upon  manpower  as  compared  to  an  army. 
Hence,  the  English  people,  while  a  part  of  Europe,  have  lived  aloof, 
feeling  "secure  and  cocksure"  in  their  island  home,  relying  implicity 
on  the  sea  and  the  navy  for  their  protection. 

Closely  associated  with  England's  insular  position  is  the  English- 
man's love  of  personal  liberty.  The  Englishman  is  an  individualist. 
Protected  by  nature  from  foreign  invasion,  cooperative  effort  has  not 
been  imperative,  as  it  has  been,  for  example,  in  Germany  where  the 
constant  fear  of  outside  invasion  has  encouraged  collective  effort  and 
dependence  upon  strong  military  leaders.  As  a  consequence,  the  Eng- 
lishman early  developed  a  strong  feeling  of  personal  independence. 
Personal  liberty  and  freedom  of  personal  action  are  leading  charac- 
teristics of  the  English,  manifesting  themselves  alike  in  his  political, 
economic,  and  commercial  life.  He  chafes  under  restraint,  can  in  no 
way  sympathize  with  the  docile  submission  of  the  German  to  central 
authority,  and  is  constantly  seeking  more  and  more  to  enlarge  the 
circle  of  his  personal  powers  and  individual  liberties.    In  other  words, 


54  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

the  Englishman  has  been  a  leader  in  the  world's  struggle  for  democ- 
racy. The  center  of  the  Englishman's  thought  is  the  individual  rather 
than  the  state. 

Questions  and  Problems. — 1.  Determine  the  width  of  the  English 
Channel  between  Dover  and  Calais;  between  Portsmouth  and  Cher- 
bourg; of  the  North  Sea  between  Margate  and  Ostend;  between  Helgo- 
land and  Hull;  between  Scotland  and  Norway. 

2.  The  English  Channel  has  been  called  the  "corridor  to  Europe." 
Discuss  the  appropriateness  of  this  term.  What  facts  of  location  and 
physical  geography  ■  have  helped  to  give  England  control  of  this 
corridor  ? 

3.  Give  concrete  illustrations  of  "international  wars  that  were 
devastating  Europe,  while  England  developed  in  peace." 

4.  Why  have  the  submarine  and  the  aeroplane  been  more  effective 
instruments  of  warfare  for  Germany  than  for  England  in  the  World 
War? 

5.  Study  the  map  for  the  geographic  reasons  that  have  contributed 
to  England's  interest  in  Belgium  and  her  willingness  to  defend  Bel- 
gium's reutrality. 

H.     England — the  Leader  in  the  World's  Commerce. 

For  a  long  time  England  has  been  known  as  the  "ruler  of  the 
waves,"  since  British  ships  have  carried  the  bulk  of  the  world's  com- 
merce. The  British  flag  has  been  seen  most  commonly  on  the  high 
seas  and  in  the  ports  of  the  world.  Wherever  there  have  been  goods 
to  carry,  there  ply  British  ships.  Rivers  in  the  heart  of  Siberia,  mid- 
ocean  islands,  tropical  ports,  as  well  as  the  great  ocean  highways,  all 
know  British  ships. 

The  logical  question,  therefore,  is  Why  did  "England  become  the 
leader  of  the  world's  commerce?  The  answer  as  far  as  geography 
is  concerned  is  found  in  the  following  conditions: 

1.  The  island  home  of  the  British. 

2.  The  central  position  of  England  in  relation  to  the  land  hemi- 
sphere. 

3.  The  many  excellent  harbors  of  England. 

4.  Rich  deposits  of  coal  and  iron. 

5.  A  climate  which  gives  the  people  great  energy. 

6.  The  need  of  great  quantities  of  raw  materials  for  factories  at 
home. 

7.  The  great  quantities  of  finished  products  to  be  distributed. 

8.  The  need  of  contact  with  many  colonies. 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  55 

Show  carefully  and  in  detail  how  each  one  of  these  eight  geo- 
graphical conditions  has  helped  England  become  the  leader  in  the 
world's  commerce.  This  can  be  done  in  part  by  working  out  the  prob- 
lems suggested  in  the  following  pages.  Commerce  and  manufacturing 
are  so  closely  connected  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  consider  one 
without  the  other. 

III.     Manufacturing  Industries  and  Trade  of  Great  Britain. 

A.     General  Statement. 

During  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  England  rapidly 
developed  into  the  most  important  manufacturing  and  commercial 
nation  of  the  world.  This  growth  was  due  to  many  reasons,  of  which 
the  geographic  are  most  potent.  Geographic  factors  largely  deter- 
mined not  only  that  Great  Britain  should  be  a  manufacturing  nation, 
but  also  pointed  the  way  along  which  manufacturing  should  develop. 
These  factors  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Geographical  position. — Under  this  head  two  influences  are 
clear:  First,  England's  separation  from  the  continent  gave  the  long 
period  of  peace  which,  in  the  hands  of  an  energetic  people,  greatly 
favored  the  growth  of  industry.  The  destructive  wars  on  the  continent 
not  only  hindered  industrial  development  there,  but  also  gave  England 
the  opportunity  to  develop  markets  for  her  manufactured  goods. 
When,  finally,  peace  came  to  Europe,  England's  industry  and  its  ac- 
companying trade  were  already  developed  and  the  markets  of  the 
world  in  her  hands.  A  second  advantage  comes  from  the  unusual  com- 
mercial facilities  offered  by  Britain's  position,  combined  with  her 
excellent  harbors.  Raw  materials  can  be  brought  cheaply  by  steam- 
ship from  all  parts  of  the  world  to  England  and  the  manufactured 
products  likewise  readily  distributed.  For  trade  connections  with 
north  Europe  and  with  North  America  the  position  of  the  British 
Isles  is  unequaled. 

2.  Climate. — A  second  geographic  advantage  of  Great  Britain  is 
her  climate.  No  other  country  comes  nearer  to  having  both  the  ideal 
temperature  for  physical  work  in  summer  and  the  ideal  for  mental 
work  in  winter.  Moreover,  the  weather  possesses  a  high  degree  of 
variability  and  thus  is  most  stimulating.  The  healthy,  ruddy  English 
complexion,  the  English  fondness  for  long  walks,  and  the  universal 
passion  for  out-of-door  games,  like  football  and  cricket,  are  all  evi- 
dences of  the  great  energy  and  good  health  that  result  from  the 
English  climate.    That  same  health  and  energy  were  important  reasons 


56  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

why  England  was  one  of  the  first  countries  to  take  up  manufacturing 
and  whj  she  easily  holds  her  own,  although  wages  in  England  are 
higher  than  in  any  other  European  country. 

3.  Coal. — A  third  advantage  possessed  by  Great  Britain  for  the  de- 
velopment of  trade  and  manufacturing  was  coal.  Large  deposits  of 
the  highest-grade  steam  coal  are  found  in  several  places  both  inland  and 
on  the  seacoast.  Although  factory  manufacturing  began  with  the  use 
of  the  abundant  water  power  produced  by  the  heavy  rainfall  on  the 
Pennine  Mountains,  the  presence  of  coal  gave  the  opportunity  for 
industrial  and  commercial  expansion.  Coal  not  only  became  the  chief 
source  of  power  for  manufacturing,  but  it  made  possible  the  develop- 
ment of  iron  smelting  and  enabled  the  fast  iron  steamship  to  sur- 
plant  or  supplement  the  slow  wooden  sailing  boat.  Hence,  coal  gave 
England  unsurpassed  advantages,  both  for  power  and  for  transporta- 
tion, the  two  factors  most  necessary  for  industrial  development. 

4.  Raw  Materials. — In  raw  materials  for  her  developing  industries 
England  was  relatively  poor.  Only  two  have  been  of  first  importance. 
Wool  production  has  long  been  very  important,  furnishing  material  for 
a  large  woolen  industry  in  addition  to  an  export  of  raw  wool.  Iron 
ore  deposits  laid  the  foundation,  together  with  coal,  for  the  large  iron, 
machinery,  and  ship-building  industries,  although  in  recent  years  Eng- 
land has  been  importing  increasing  quantities  of  ore  as  her  own  iron 
deposits  have  declined.  With  the  best  location  in  the  world,  a  climate 
that  is  almost  ideal,  an  abundance  of  coal,  a  good  supply  of  easily 
accessible  iron  ore,  and  a  fair  supply  of  wood,  England  was  in  a 
position  to  outstrip  all  competitors.  Her  deposits  of  coal  and  her 
geographical  position  have  made  it  easily  possible  to  import  all  sorts  of 
raw  materials  for  her  industries  and  food  for  her  workers.  She  pays 
for  these  with  her  manufactured  goods  and  with  the  profits  she  is  mak- 
ing from  the  great  merchant  marine  that  has  grown  hand  in  hand  with 
her  manufacturing  industries.  These  have  made  England  at  the  same 
time  both  the  leading  manufacturing  and  the  leading  commercial  nation 
of  the  world. 

B.     Imports  and  Exports. 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  5  leading  imports  into  Great  Britain  and  their 
value  under  each  of  the  following  headings:  (1)  raw  materials;  (2) 
foods;  C3)  manufactured  products.  From  what  part  of  the  world  do 
these  imports  mainly  come? 

2.  Make  a  similar  list  for  exports,  stating  the  chief  countries  of 
destination. 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  57 

3.  Of  the  exported  manufactured  goods  given  in  question  2,  which 
ones  depend  to  any  considerable  extent  upon  domestic  raw  materials? 

4.  (a)  Compare  England's  facilities  for  obtaining  iron  ore  for  her 
blast-  furnaces  in  southern  Wales  with  the  facilities  of  the  Pittsburgh 
district  for  obtaining  supplies  of  iron  ore.  (This  question  involves  a 
comparison  of  the  distance  of  Pittsburgh  from  the  Lake  Superior  iron 
ore  deposits  and  of  the  means  of  transporting  the  ore  to  Pittsburgh,  on 
the  one  hand,  with  the  distance  of  south  Wales  from  the  Spanish  or 
Swedish  iron  ore  deposits  and  the  means  of  transportation,  on  the 
other  hand.) 

(b)  Is  the  English  or  American  steel  region  best  situated  for  the 
development  of  an  iron  and  steel  industry  for  export?  For  domestic 
consumption  ? 

5.  Compare  old  England  with  New  England  as  to  facilities  for 
securing  wheat,  meats',  and  dairy  products  for  their  large  industrial 
populations.  (Assume  that  both  regions  find  it  equally  impossible  to 
produce  sufficient  food  for  their  own  consumption.) 

6.  Compare  the  cost  of  transporting  cotton  from  Galveston,  Texas, 
to  Boston,  Mass.,  with  the  cost  of  transporting  it  from  Galveston  to 
Liverpool.  Also  compare  the  cost  of  getting  coal  to  Maine  from  West 
Virginia  and  to  Manchester  from  the  nearest  coal  field. 

7.  Draw  conclusions  from  the  answers  to  the  foregoing  questions, 
and  similar  questions  that  will  suggest  themselves,  as  to  comparative 
advantages  or  disadvantages  of  England  and  of  the  industrial  sections 
of  other  countries  in  securing  raw  materials  and  food. 

8.  What  reasons  can  you  suggest  for  England's  policy  of  colonial 
expansion?    What  facts  have  aided  her  in  this  expansion? 

9.  Is  the  British  Empire,  that  is,  the  Unitevi  Kingdom  and  all  its 
colonies,  economically  independent  of  the  rest  of  the  world?  Examine 
the  colonies  for  the  products  they  send  to  England  and  try  to  dis- 
cover what  important  products  necessary  for  the  development  of  a 
modern  nation  are  not,  or  can  not  be,  secured  from  England's  colonial 
possessions.    Compare  with  France  and  Germany. 

C.     The  Importance  of  Cotton  Manufacturing  to  Great  Britain. 

1.  Prepare  a  table  showing  the  number  of  cotton  spindles  in  the 
leading  countries  of  the  world  for  1913.  What  per  cent  is  found  in 
Great  Britain?  in  Germany?  in  the  United  States?  in  all  of  Europe 
outside  of  Great  Britain. 

2.  Make  a  table  showing  in  one  column  the  amounts  and  sources 
of  raw  cotton  imports  by  quantity  and  value ;  in  a  second  column  show 


58  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

the  value  and  destination  of  cotton  goods  exported  from  Great  Britain. 

3.  What  proportion  of  the  wage  earners  of  Great  Britain  are  em- 
ployed in  cotton  mills?    in  woolen  mills. 

4.  Over  83  per  cent  of  England's  cotton  manufacturing  is  in  the 
Lancashire  district.  Enumerate  the  reasons  for  this  concentration  of 
the  industry,  paying  attention  to  the  effect  (a)  of  position  both  upon 
imports  and  exports,  (b)  of  climate  both  upon  man  and  upon  cotton 
fiber,  and  (c)  of  coal. 

D.     England's  Merchant  Marine. 

1.  Find  a  table  of  the  tonnage  of  the  merchant  marine  of  the  lead- 
ing commercial  nations  of  the  world  for  the  year  1913.  Arrange  this 
in  order  of  size.  Rearrange  according  to  tonnage  per  capita.  What 
does  this  rearrangement  suggest  as  to  England's  relation  to  other 
maritime  countries? 

2.  What  percentage  of  the  world's  tonnage  was  controlled  by 
England  in  1913?  by  Germany?  by  the  alHed  and  neutral  countries  of 
northwestern  Europe  combined,  that  is,  Britain,  the  Netherlands,  Bel- 
gium, Norway,  Sweden,  and  France?  Obtain  estimates  of  the  tonnage 
that  has  been  sunk  by  submarines,  and  discuss  the  German  submarine 
policy  in  the  light  of  these  facts. 

France. 
I.     Effect  of  the  Double  Sea  Front. 
General  Statement. 

France  is  the  only  country  of  Europe  which  borders  upon  two  seas 
and  is  open  to  their  influences.  Its  frontage  upon  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
on  the  north  and  west  and  upon  the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  south 
give  it  a  great  advantage.  Spain,  to  be  sure,  borders  upon  the  same 
bodies  of  water,  but  the  mountainous  rim  of  its  high  plateau  shuts  out 
the  influence  of  the  ocean.  As  the  result  of  a  two-fold  frontage 
the  history  of  France  has  been  closely  allied  with  that  of  Italy  on  the 
one  hand  and  England  on  the  other.  Because  influences  from  the  south 
could  penetrate  so  easily,  France  has  long  been  the  chief  Latin  nation. 
Caesar,  who  is  more  read  than  any  other  Latin  author,  carried  on  his 
wars  in  France  largely  because  of  the  easy  entrance  through  the  Medi- 
terranean doorway.  In  many  parts  of  southern  France,  Roman  ruins 
are  almost  as  abundant  and  magnificent  as  in  Italy.  Northern  France, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  the  country  of  the  Gauls  and  was  the  region 
whence  the  ancestors  of  the  British  passed  over  to  their  island  home. 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  59 

The  Norman  Conquest  was  the  last  great  movement  of  the  so-called 
Nordic  or  Teutonic  population.  Perhaps  the  fact  that  the  Latins  from 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  Nordics  from  the  Atlantic  regions  met 
mainly  in  France  is  the  reason  for  the  versatility  of  the  French 
people.  In  modern  days  the  openness  of  France  to  the  south  has  been 
one  reason  why  she  has  been  regarded  as  the  chief  Roman  Catholic 
nation.  It  has  caused  her  to  become  the  protector  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  in  the  east  and  of  other  Christians  in  Syria.  The  sea  front 
on  the  north,  on  the  other  hand,  causes  France  to  have  an  enormous 
trade  with  England  and  with  the  United  States  and  has  been  an  im- 
portant reason  why  the  Great  War  found  France,  England,  and  Amer- 
ica fighting  side  by  side  on  French  soil. 

Commercially,  France  shows  the  same  division  in  accordance  with 
its  two  oceanic  fronts.  In  the  south,  the  imports  consist  of  oriental 
products,  such  as  peanuts.  Mail  steamers  for  Egypt,  India,  and  the 
Far  East  make  Marseilles  one  of  their  chief  termini.  In  northern 
France,  the  imports  and  exports  are  quite  different  from  those  of  the 
south.  Cotton  is  brought  from  America,  woven  into  high-grade  textiles, 
and  exported  in  the  form  of  beautiful  articles  of  dress  to  England 
and  America. 

The  manufactures  of  France  naturally  differ  in  part  because  of  the 
countries  to  which  the  two  coasts  give  access.  In  the  south,  factories 
for  the  production  of  olive  oil  and  peanut  oil,  for  example,  are  im- 
portant. In  the  north,  cotton  mills  use  material  that  comes  across 
the  Atlantic.  In  the  south,  the  exports  of  manufactured  articles  con- 
sist of  relatively  crude  products,  such  as  gaudy  cloth  for  the  people 
of  Algeria.  In  the  north,  the  exports  consist  of  the  finest  grade  of 
materials  together  with  highly  finished  metal  products. 

Again,  the  colonial  history  of  France  is  bound  up  with  the  fact  that 
it  has  two  sea  frontages.  The  southern  front  is  responsible  for  the 
African  colonies  of  Algeria  and  Tunis  and,  to  a  less  degree,  for  the 
Asiatic  colonies  near  China.  Marseilles  is  noted  for  its  colonial  insti- 
tute. The  colonial  ventures  of  France  across  the  Atlantic  have  not 
fared  so  well  as  those  on  the  Mediterranean  front.  Canada  promised 
to  be  a  great  French  colony,  as  did  Louisiana,  but  the  promise  was 
never  kept. 

Still  another  result  of  the  double  sea  front  is  that  France  has 
resorts  on  the  seacoast  for  both  summer  and  winter.  Nice  and  the 
neighboring  regions  attract  the  pleasure  seeker  in  the  winter,  while  the 
Norman  coast  is  almost  equally  attractive  in  the  summer. 


6o  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

Specific  Problems. 

1.  Harbors. — In  order  to  estimate  the  effect  produced  by  the  two 
sea  fronts  compare  the  main  harbors  upon  the  Atlantic  and  Mediter- 
ranean coasts.  How  many  cities  of  over  100,000  population  lie  on 
each?  How  do  they  compare  in  size  and  influence?  What  does  this 
indicate  as  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic 
trade?  How  do  the  harbors  on  the  two  fronts  compare  in  shelter, 
depth  of  water,  etc.?    Use  an  encyclopedia. 

2.  Navigable  Rivers. — From  an  encyclopedia  or  some  similar 
source  determine  the  four  chief  navigable  rivers  of  France.  Name 
and  locate  the  cities  of  over  100,000  population  upon  each.  What  hin- 
drances to  navigation  exist  in  each,  and  how  are  they  overcome?  In 
view  of  the  navigability  of  the  rivers  and  the  size  of  the  cities  upon 
them,  what  do  you  conclude  as  to  the  relative  accessibility  of  France 
from  the  two  seas?-  How  does  this  help  to  account  for  the  fact  that  in 
early  days  France  was  primarily  a  Mediterranean  country  while  in 
later  days  her  interests  have  become  more  closely  connected  with  the 
Atlantic? 

3.  The  Exports  and  Imports. — From  an  encyclopedia,  make  a  list 
of  the  five  chief  exports  from  Marseilles  and  from  each  of  the  two 
main  northern  ports.  To  what  countries  do  these  exports  chiefly 
go?  Are  the  raw  materials  which  enter  into  them  largely  of  foreign 
or  domestic  origin?  As  a  help  in  answering  this  last  question  make  a 
list  of  the  five  chief  imports  to  the  northern  and  southern  ports.  Where 
do  these  imports  come  from,  what  are  they  mainly  used  for?  On  the 
basis  of  these  facts  compare  the  northern  trade  with  the  southern. 

4.  Colonies. — List  the  chief  African  colonies  together  with  their 
total  trade  with  France.  How  large  is  the  French  population  of 
Algeria,  which  contains  most  of  the  French  colonists?  Compare  the 
figures  for  the  total  volume  of  trade  between  France  and  its  colonies 
with  the  similar  figures  for  the  total  volume  of  trade  between  England 
and  Canada.  Compare  the  number  of  French  living  in  Algeria  with 
the  number  of  French-speaking  inhabitants  of  Canada.  On  the  basis 
of  these  figures  and  any  other  facts  at  your  disposal,  write  down  your 
conclusions  as  to  whether  France  is  benefited  more  by  the  colonies  tribu- 
tary to  its  Mediterranean  front  than  it  would  have  been  had  it  retained 
the  colonies  tributary  to  its  Atlantic  front. 

II.    Expression  of  Artistic  Temperament. 
France  is  among  the  world's  most  energetic  nations.    Geographical 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  6i 

conditions  have  favored  this  development.  The  country  lies  in  such  a 
latitude  as  to  have  energizing  temperatures.  The  summers  are  not 
too  warm  for  vigorous  exertions,  and  the  winters  are  mild  enough 
to  make  outdoor  work  a  pleasure.  Moreover,  the  westerly  winds  from 
the  norih  Atlantic,  alternating  with  winds  from  other  directions,  bring 
a  variety  of  temperatures  even  within  a  short  space  of  time,  so  that 
man  is  continually  stimulated  in  his  work.  The  rainfall  is  also  en- 
couraging. All  over  France  it  is  sufficient  to  make  farming  successful. 
Hence  it  promises  ample  reward  to  the  laborers  on  the  farms. 

Nations  vary  greatly  in  responding  to  the  energizing  climate  of 
temperate  regions.  Some  who  live  in  regions  endowed  with  coal  and 
iron  deposits  turn  to  manufacturing  and  show  their  energy  of  mind  and 
body  by  the  quantity  and  quality  of  their  products.  Others  with  ex- 
cellent harbors  spend  their  energy  in  commerce.  Still  others  respond 
in  other  channels,  such  as  militarism.  The  French,  who  live  in  a 
country  having  neither  great  mineral  deposits  nor  many  excellent 
harbors,  but  who  are  born  with  an  artistic  temperament,  expend  their 
energy  along  artistic  lines. 

The  artistic  quality  of  the  French  shows  in  many  ways.  The  follow- 
ing are  samples : 

1.  Manufactured  products. 

(a)  Fabrics,   silks,   embroideries.    (Artistic  quality  especially 
shown  in  colors  and  designs.) 

(b)  Scientific  instruments. 

(c)  Chinaware  and  glass. 

(d)  Jewelry. 

(e)  Wines. 

(f)  Canned  goods,  like  sardines  and  petits  pois. 

2.  City  planning. 

(a)  Radial  street  plan. 

(b)  Boulevards.  (The  word  itself  is  French.) 

(c)  Supervision  of  height  and  type  of  buildings. 

3.  Architecture. 

(a)  Cathedrals. 

(b)  Arches. 

(c)  Bridges. 

(d)  Chateaus. 

Problem. 
Select  one  of  the  three  lines  in  which  France  shows  her  artistic 
quality,   and  carefully  investigate  it   for  an   oral   or  written  report. 


62  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

For  instance,  if  "manufactured  products"  be  one  of  those  selected, 
visit  stores  where  they  are  likely  to  be  on  sale,  and  study  their  quality. 
Try  to  find  out  in  each  case  how  the  artistic  quality  of  the  French 
shows  itself.  Scientific  instruments  can  probably  be  found  for  in- 
spection in  the  laboratories  of  your  university. 

Most  of  the  research  work  needed  in  the  other  lines  of  investigation 
must  be  done  with  books,  magazines,  and  encyclopedias. 

Germany. 
I.     Scientific  Agriculture   in   Germany. 

Germany  in  recent  decades  has  made  great  progress  in  the  develop- 
ment of  scientific  agriculture.  Reasons  for  this  development  are  partly 
geographic  and  partly  economic. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Germany  partakes  both  of  the  marine  and 
of  the  continental,  being  comparatively  mild  'and  moist  in  the  west 
and  more  dry  and  extreme  in  the  east.  The  difference  is  not  suffi- 
cient, however,  to  cause  any  great  divergence  between  the  crops  of 
the  two  sections.  Between  the  north  and  the  south  there  is  not  much 
difference  of  climate  because  the  greater  altitude  of  the  south  counter- 
acts the  warming  effect  of  lower  latitude.  Hence,  the  range  of  crops 
is  relatively  limited. 

Soil. — The  geological  structure  and,  therefore,  the  soil  of  south 
Germany  is  complicated  and  can  not  be  briefly  characterized,  but  on  the 
whole  it  is  relatively  poor  compared  with  soils  such  as  occur  in  the 
American  prairies.  The  great  plain  of  north  Germany  is  composed  of 
recent  sediments  overlain  in  large  part  by  glacial  deposits.  These  give 
rise  to  light  and  sandy  soils  over  large  areas.  To  secure  adequate 
yields  from  such  soil  requires  constant  attention,  the  application  of 
chemical  fertilizers,  and  the  employment  of  chemical  analysis  to  correct 
the  acid  condition  of  the  soil. 

Population,  Labor,  and  Markets. — Manufacturing  and  commerce 
grew  up  in  Germany  for  much  the  same  geographic  reasons  as  in 
England,  except  that  Germany  is  not  insular  and  hence  is  not  England's 
equal  in  ocean  commerce.  With  the  growth  of  manufacturing  in  Ger- 
many, large  markets  for  agricultural  products  began  to  appear  in  the 
various  industrial  centers.  At  the  same  time  these  industrial  centers 
furnished  cheap  labor.  In  order  to  provide  food  for  the  growing 
population,  it  was  necessary  for  German  farmers  to  reorganize  their 
crop  systems  and  to  intensify  production  by  the  utilization  of  seasonal 
labor,  by  the  application  of  chemical  fertilizers,  and  by  other  scientific 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  63 

methods.  Thus,  the  geographic  conditions  of  (1)  favorable  position, 
(2)  stimulating  climate,  (3)  easily  available  coal  and  iron,  (4)  re- 
stricted opportunities  for  ocean  commerce,  (5)  a  soil  of  only  moderate 
fertility,  and  (6)  a  climate  rather  cool  for  the  most  profitable  agricul- 
ture led  to  the  growth  of  scientific  agriculture  and  to  the  establishment 
of  many  agricultural  schools.  Explain  the  part  played  by  each  step  in 
this  process. 

Ownership. — In  the  east  of  Germany  are  many  large  landed  estates, 
but  in  the  country  as  a  whole  relatively  small  farms  predominate.  The 
intensive  cultivation  which  results  from  small  farms  and  relatively 
cheap  labor  led  to  the  introduction  of  special  crops  which  require  much 
hand  labor  and  which  yield  relatively  large  returns.  The  cool  and 
moist  summers  and  the  long  pleasant  autumns  caused  root  crops,  espe- 
cially the  potato  and  sugar  beet,  to  be  the  crops  largely  chosen  for  this 
purpose.  Although  the  sugar  beet  was  first  developed  by  the  French, 
it  was  taken  up  by  the  Germans  and  improved  to  a  much  higher  point 
of  productivity.  The  desire  to  develop  this  crop  was  an  important 
factor  in  stimulating  the  Germans  to  a  study  of  soil  chemistry  and 
of  the  other  sciences  involved  in  scientific  farming.  Further  stimulus 
to  the  industry  was  lent  by  forms  of  governmental  protection.  In  1914 
Germany  was  one  of  the  largest  sugar  exporters  of  the  world. 

Sugar-raising  region  of  northern  Germany. — (See  Atlas  of  World 
Agriculture.) 

(l)Make  tables  of  normal  sugar  production,  total  consumption,  and 
consumption  per  capita  for  the  six  chief  European  countries  and  for 
the  United  States,  Brazil,  Egypt,  India,  and  Japan. 

(2)  Note  the  temperature,  rainfall,  and  commerce  in  countries 
with  large  sugar  production.  Put  these  conditions  in  statistical  form 
in  a  table. 

(3)  Note  the  rainfall,  temperature,  soil,  and  vegetation  in  the  part 
of  Germany  where  sugar  beets  are  raised  most  abundantly. 

(4)  Pick  out  other  parts  of  the  world  and  especially  of  Europe 
where  similar  geographic  conditions  prevail.  Make  a  table  showing 
their  relation  to  sugar-raising. 

(5)  Compare  the  demand  for  sugar  with  its  production.  Work 
out  the  connection  between  the  two.  In  doing  this  consider- the  trans- 
portation facilities  and  political  relations  between  the  great  sugar- 
consuming  countries  and  the  chief  sources  of  cane  sugar. 

(6)  Sum  up  your  conclusions  as  to  the  reasons  why  Germany  is 


64  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

preeminent  in  sugar-raising.     Discuss  these  conclusions  in  relation  to 
the  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  sugar  beet. 

II.     Relation  of   Mineral  Deposits   to   Industry  and 
Technical  Education, 

General  Facts. — The  great  mineral  belt  of  Europe  extends  in  a  gen- 
eral east-west  direction  across  the  continent  from  northern  France  and 
Belgium  to  northern  Austria.  It  lies  chiefly  in  the  border  region  be- 
tween the  low  plains  of  the  north  and  the  highlands  of  the  south.  Here, 
coal  and  iron,  together  with  less  important  minerals,  have  marked  out 
a  great  industrial  region  extending  through  northern  France,  Belgium, 
Luxemburg,  the  Rhine  Valley,  southwestern  Prussia,  Saxony,  Bo- 
hemia, and  southern  Poland.  Hence,  we  find  here  the  belt  of  densest 
population. 

The  German  Empire  as  a  nation  was  late  in  entering  the  intense 
European  competition  for  world  trade.  As  soon  as  the  race  was  entered, 
however,  the  leaders  of  thought  recognized  the  necessity  of  education 
in  order  to  surpass  their  competitors.  Since  Germany  was  not  so 
well  situated  for  commerce  as  its  great  rival,  England,  it  was  necessary, 
also,  that  the  products  manufactured  in  Germany  should  have  a  high 
value  in  proportion  to  their  bulk.  This  could  be  secured  by  producing 
goods  which  required  a  high  degree  of  skill  or  technical  knowledge. 
In  addition  to  this,  Germany's  unfavorable  frontiers  and  crowded 
position  in  the  heart  of  Europe  joined  with  other  causes  in  leading  to 
militarism.  Hence,  during  the  development  of  German  industries  there 
was  a  constant  attempt  to  shape  them  in  such  a  way  that  they  could  be 
utilized  for  military  purposes.  The  fact  that  dye  factories,  for  example, 
can  readily  be  turned  into  munition  works  was  one  reason  why  the 
German  government  fostered  the  manufacture  of  dyes  from  coal  tar. 

Problems. 

1.  From  the  encyclopedia  or  other  source  obtain  a  list  of  the  salts 
and  other  minerals  mined  in  Germany.  Compare  this  with  a  similar 
list  for  England.  What  is  "kainite,"  and  why  should  it  be  named  in 
this  connection?  Explain  how  the  presence  of  minerals  in  Germany 
has  guided  the  activity  of  the  Germans  into  chemical  industries  and 
stimulated  technical  education?  Name  as  many  industries  as  possible 
which  are  founded  largely  on  chemistry  and  are  highly  developed  in 
Germany. 

2.  In  some  good  atlas  find  the  region  of  densest  population  in 
Germany,  Mark  off  this  region  on  an  outline  map.  On  your  outline 
map  blacken  the  regions  that  produce  coal,  and  shade  with  some  other 


k 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  65 

color  the  regions  producing  iron.  Do  the  coal  and  iron  regions  lie 
near  each  other?  How  do  the  regions  of  coal  and  iron  correspond 
with  the  regions  of  greatest  density  of  population? 

3.  Next,  mark  off  on  your  map  the  regions  of  greatest  manufacture, 
or  the  industrial  regions.  What  criterion  can  you  use  for  determining 
industrial  regions?  What  is  the  relation  of  the  industrial  regions  to 
the  regions  of  coal  and  iron  and  of  densest  population? 

4.  Locate  on  your  map  at  least  ten  of  the  largest  cities  of  Germany. 
How  many  of  these,  and  which  ones,  appear  to  be  related  to  the  coal 
and  iron  regions  either  directly  or  indirectly?  What  is  the  greatest 
commercial  city  of  Germany?  Can  you  see  any  way  in  which  its  great 
commerce  may  be  due,  at  least  in  part,  to  the  industrial  regions  ?  What 
articles  are  manufactured  in  the  region  of  densest  population?  From 
what  raw  materials  are  these  things  made?  Where  are  these  raw 
materials  obtained?  What  becomes  of  the  finished  products?  What 
necessities  of  the  people  of  this  region  must  be  supplied  from  outside 
sources?    Where  were  these  things  obtained  before  the  war? 

5.  Compare  the  value  of  some  chemical  product  with  the  value  of 
the  raw  material  from  which  it  is  produced,  for  example,  dyes  and 
coal  tar.  Mark  on  your  map  the  chief  cities  known  to  be  large  manu- 
facturers of  chemicals.  What  are  the  factors  entering  into  the  high 
cost  of  chemical  products? 

6.  How  many  great  universities  are  there  in  Germany?  Mark  off 
any  equal  area  in  the  United  States  and  see  if  it  includes  an  equal 
number  of  equally  great  universities.  (Compare  by  number  of  pro- 
fessors employed  or  number  of  students  enrolled.)  What  can  you  find 
out  from  reading  concerning  the  number  of  technical  and  trade  schools 
in  Germany  below  university  grade?  Find  the  per  cent  of  illiteracy 
in  Germany  and  in  the  United  States. 

Summary. — Sum  up  all  you  have  found  concerning  the  relationships 
existing  in  Germany  between  technical  education,  chemical  industries, 
and  the  presence  of  mineral  deposits.  In  this  connection  the  following 
articles  are  of  interest: 

Germany's  Stolen  Chemistry,  by  Townes  R.  Leigh,  Manufacturer's 
Record,  page  63,  August  22,  1918 ;  Germany's  Real  Position  in  Chemi- 
cal World,  American  Exporters,  September,  1918. 

Belgium. 
The  Effect  of  Location  on  War  and  on.  Commerce. 
General  Statements. 

Belgium  is  located  in  the  central  part  of  western  Europe.    Its  sea- 


66  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

coast  of  42  miles  is  on  the  English  Channel,  opposite  London.  Belgium 
lies  directly  between  Berlin  and  London,  and  its  eastern  portion  is 
directly  between  Berhn  and  Lajis, 

Belgium  is  nearly  flat  and  very  little  above  sea  level.  Only  in  die 
southeastern  portion  are  there  altitudes  in  excess  of  2,000  feet.  T}us 
absence  of  high  altitudes  has  favored  the  development  of  a  wonder- 
ful transportation  system.  Navigable  rivers  are  numerous  and  have 
been  supplemented  by  a  network  of  canals  second  only  to  those  of 
Holland.  Railroads,  both  heavy  and  light,  have  been  built  extensively. 
Electric  and  steam  tramways  are  found  in  all  the  principal  cities.  The 
roads  are  generally  paved  or  macadamized.  In  this  state  of  11,373 
square  miles,  there  are  1,360  miles  of  navigable  waterways,  2,900  miles 
of  main  railways  and  2,500  miles  of  light  railways,  and  6,000  miles 
of  roads. 

Thus  situated,  unprovided  with  any  natural  barriers,  and  possessing 
excellent  means  olt  transportation,  Belgium  early  became  the  "cock- 
pit" of  Europe.  Imperialistic  nations  sought  to  control  Belgium  be- 
cause of  her  central  location.  Her  warring  neighbors  struck  at  each 
other  across  her  borders.  Spain  in  the  sixteenth  century  sought  to 
control  Belgium,  and  from  this  country  she  struck  at  the  Netherlands. 
France  made  a  conquest  of  Belgian  territory  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Belgium  was 
made  the  battleground  for  the  contending  forces  of  England,  the 
Netherlands,  and  Spain  against  France.  Austria  and  Holland  to- 
gether exercised  control  oyer  Belgium  for  a  period  in  the  eighteenth 
century.  France  conquered  the  country  during  the  War  of  the  Austrian 
Succession  but- was  forced  to  return  it  to  Austria  at  the  close  of  that 
war.  In  1790,  Austria  suppressed  a  revolt  of  the  Belgians.  In  1792, 
France  struck  at  Austria  at  her  weakest  point — Belgium — and  made 
Belgium  a  part  of  France.  The  Battle  of  Waterloo  was  fought  on 
Belgian  soil.  Belgium  was  united  with  Holland  to  form  the  Kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands,  but  in  1830  the  Belgians  revolted.  A  convention 
of  the  five  great  powers  met  in  London  and  secured  the  cessation  of 
hostilities  and  the  independence  of  Belgium  as  "a  neutral  state,"  but 
only  after  France  had  aided  the  revolutionists.  It  i^  noteworthy  that 
imperialistic  Germany  struck  at  France  and  Great  Britain  through 
Belgium. 

In  a  commercial  sense,  Belgium's  location  has  been  very  favorable. 
Located  on  the  sea  and  possessing  numerous  waterways,  she  could 
transport  her  heavy  raw  materials  cheaply.     Coal  and  iron  ore  could 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  '        67 

thus  be  brought  together  and  iron  and  steel  products  manufactured  at 
a  relatively  low  cost.  Belgium  has  practically  exhausted  her  native 
deposits  of  iron  ore,  but  she  can  import  such  ores  from  northern 
France.  The  coal  beds  of  Belgium  are  extensive.  Sand  abounds  in 
the  coastal  regions.  Hence,  before  the  v^ar,  glass  was  manufactured  on 
a  large  scale.  Limestone  occurs  in  the  coal  fields.  The  manufacture  of 
cement  is  thus  made  possible  and  was  conducted  on  a  grand  scale  be- 
fore the  war.  Two-thirds  of  the  cement  produced  was  exported,  so 
great  was  the  output.  There  were  many  other  industries,  such  as  the 
paper  industry,  manufacture  of  electrical  appliances,  of  candles,  of 
enameled  ware,  of  chemicals,  of  leather  goods,  and  of  jewelry. 
Diamond-cutting  was  noteworthy.  The  production  and  exportation  of 
firearms  was  very  extensive  before  the  present  war.  Belgium  is  in  the 
heart  of  industrial  Europe — across  the  English  Channel  to  the  west  is 
England,  across  the  southern  border  lies  the  industrial  section  of 
France,  on  the  east  is  industrial  Germany,  and  on  the  north  the  com- 
mercial Netherlands. 

Agriculture  though  carried  on  very  extensively  no  longer  produces 
sufficient  food  to  feed  Belgium's  people.  Hence,  the  importation  of 
food  in  return  for  manufactured  articles  is  very  large.  The  soil  is 
sandy  and  poor  along  the  coastal  plain  but  responds  to  fertilization. 
Before  the  war,  gardens  abounded  everywhere — factory  workers  in 
large  numbers  lived  in  suburbs  and  had  their  gardens  to  supply  food 
cheaply  and  thus  counteract  their  low  wages.  Wheat,  rye,  and  potatoes 
were  the  leading  crops.  In  proportion  to  her  area,  Belgium  grew  a 
greater  amount  of  wheat  than  the  leading  American  wheat  States — 
Kansas,  Minnesota,  or  North  Dakota.  Before  the  war,  the  produc- 
tion of  potatoes  in  Belgium  was  about  sixty  times  as  great  per  square 
mile  as  in  the  United  States,  the  population  being  about  twenty  times 
as  great  per  square  mile.  In  spite  of  the  high  development  of  agricul- 
ture, Belgium's  population  was  too  dense — the  most  densely  populated 
country  in  Europe — for  the  land  to  supply  food  and  raw  materials; 
hence  Belgium  imported  over  a  billion  dollars'  worth  of  such  mate- 
rials before  the  war.  She  met  this  outlay  by  exporting  manufactured 
articles.    Her  location,  as  we  have  seen,  greatly  facilitated  such  trade. 

Specific  Problems.  . 

1.  On  a  map  of  western  Europe  note  the  direction  and  distance  of 
the  railway  lines  from  Berlin  to  Paris  and  to  the  ports  on  the  English 
Channel.    Note  also  the  location  of  mountains  or  high  altitudes  along 


68  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

the  border  between  Germany  and  France.  From  these,  explain  fully 
why  Germany  struck  at  France  through  Belgium  rather  than  through 
Switzerland,  under  the  following  points:  (a)  the  time  element,  (b) 
movement  of  heavy  artillery  and  great  number  of  troops  and  war  sup- 
plies, (c)  obtaining  control  of  the  transportation  centers  of  France, 
(d)  anticipating  war  with  England,  (e)  to  make  the  greatest  conquest. 

2.  The  northern  part  of  France  possesses  the  only  good  iron  ore 
in  the  country  and  is  the  great  manufacturing  section  of  France. 
Belgium  also  possesses  some  deposits  of  iron  ore  and  considerable 
coal  beds,  and  great  iron  and  steel  manufactures.  How  are  these 
related  to  the  choice  of  routes  that  Germany  would  take  in  order  to 
make  the  most  strategic  attack  on  France  ? 

3.  In  the  lig'ht  of  the  foregoing  problems  and  their  discussion,  what 
would  be  the  probability  of  a  permanent  peace  if  the  Germans  were 
not  driven  out  of  ^^elgium  by  force  of  arms?    Discuss. 

4.  What  factors  growing  out  of  the  War  might  affect  Belgium's 
commercial  position  adversely,  and  what  ones  improve  it? 

5.  What  relation  is  there  between  the  flatness  of  Belgium  and  the 
rainy  seasons,  on  the  one  band,  and  military  campaigns,  on  the  other? 

6.  In  what  ways  did  Belgium's  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  highly 
finished  products  appeal  to  imperialistic  Germany? 

The  Netherlands. 

Commerce  and  Colonies  in  Relation  to  Climate  and  Position. 
The  Netherlands,  one  of  the  important  commercial  countries  of  the 
world,  is  also  one  of  the  smallest  countries.  Its  total  land  area  is 
about  equal  to  the  combined  area  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut. 
It  has  as  many  people  as  Illinois,  although  that  State  is  4>^  times  as 
large.  In  1915  the  population  was  approximately  four-fifths  that  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  a  country  larger  than  the  United  States. 
These  Dutch  people  who  live  in  such  large  numbers  in  so  small  a  space 
are  prosperous,  well  educated,  and  maintain  a  high  standard  of  living. 
These  facts  lead  at  once  to  the  question  of  how  such  a  large  population 
can  be  supported  in  such  a  small  country.  The  explanation  lies  in  the 
extensive  commerce  which  is  carried  on  by  the  Dutch.  In  order  to 
understand  the  factors  which  have  influenced  the  development  of  this 
commerce  it  is  necessary  to  consider:  (1)  the  early  development  of  the 
Netherlands'  commerce  and  the  acquisition  of  her  colonial  possessions, 
(2)  the  fishing  industry,  (3)  agriculture,  (4)  manufacturing,  and  (5) 
trade  and  shipping  at  the  present  time.     (See  tables,  pages  38  and  45.) 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  69 

Development  of  Dutch  Commerce. — The  development  of  Dutch  com- 
merce was  associated  with  the  endeavors  of  a  number  of  European  na- 
tions to  trade  with  tropical  countries  which  produce  spice,  sugar,  rice, 
and  other  commodities  which  at  that  time  were  almost  unknown  in 
Europe.  Until  relatively  modern  times  the  food  of  northern  Europe 
was  limited  to  the  products  grown  at  home.  Without  any  of  the 
modern  means  of  preserving  meat  or  other  food  and  without  the  potato 
and  many  of  the  vegetables  which  now  form  an  important  part  of  the 
food  of  poor  people  it  is  evident  that  the  diet  of  even  the  wealthy 
classes  was  monotonous.  Consequently,  during  the  early  centuries 
spice,  sugar,  and  similar  articles  were  brought  from  the  Orient  across 
Asia  Minor  to  Venice  and  Genoa,  whence  they  were  distributed  to 
northern  Europe.  In  the  .fifteenth  century  the  activities  of  the  Turks 
closed  the  trade  routes  across  Asia  Minor,  a  fact  which  stimulated  the 
explorations  which  culminated  in  the  discovery  of  America  in  1492 
and  especially  in  the  discovery  by  the  Portuguese  of  the  all-sea  route 
around  Africa  in  1498.  The  oriental  trade  then  shifted  to  Portugal 
and  that  country  prospered  accordingly. 

In  order  to  secure  the  much  desired  spice,  sugar,  and  other  oriental 
products  the  Dutch  developed  a  coasting  trade  with  the  Portuguese  and 
then  became  the  principal  distributors  of  these  products  to  all  north 
Europe.  This  trade  was  the  basis  of  Dutch  commerce.  In  1580  Spain 
and  Portugal  were  united  under  one  government.  One  of  the  first 
acts  of  the  new  government  was  to  forbid  the  Dutch  access  to  Lisbon 
and  the  other  Iberian  ports.  This  was  such  a  blow  to  the  Dutch  that 
they  shortly  sent  a  fleet  around  Africa  to  the  Orient  where  they  built 
up  an  important  trade  with  the  island  of  Java  as  a  center.  In  order 
to  manage  this  trade  the  merchants  of  the  Netherlands  organized  the 
famous  Dutch  East  India  Company,  which  for  a  time  was  one  of  the 
most  influential  commercial  companies  in  the  world.  At  the  height  of 
its  prosperity  in  1669  it  possessed  150  trading  ships  and  40  ships  of 
war,  employed  10,000  soldiers,  and  paid  a  dividend  of  40  per  cent.  In 
time,  the  Dutch  established  colonies  in  South  Africa,  South  America, 
and  the  West  Indies.  It  was  the  descendants  of  the  Dutch  colony  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  that  fought  the  British  in  the  Boer  War.  The 
Dutch  have  maintained  their  East  Indian  colonies  and  possessions  un- 
til the  present  time.  They  comprise  a  total  area  of  approximately 
735,000  square  miles  and  have  a  population  estimated  at  48,000,000 
and  are  so  closely  related  to  the  mother  country  that  nearly  four- 
fifths  of  their  total  export  goes  to  the  Netherlands. 


70  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

In  proof  of  the  above  statements  look  up  (1)  the  population,  (2) 
the  total  commerce,  (3)  the  merchant  tonnage,  and  (4)  the  number 
of  depei}dents  in  the  colonies  of  the  Netherlands,  Great  Britain,  France, 
Italy,  and  the  United  States.  Find  the  total  commerce,  merchant  ton- 
nage, and  colonial  dependents  per  1,000  of  the  home  population  in 
each  country.  On  this  basis,  how  does  the  Netherlands  compare  with 
the  others? 

The  Fishing  Industry. — The  fishing  industry,  which  was  in  existence 
as  early  as  the  thirteenth  century,  has  been  an  important  factor  in  the 
development  of  the  commerce  of  Holland.  Beginning  simply  as  a 
means  of  supplementing  the  meager  food  supply  of  people  living  near 
the  coast,  it  developed  into  an  important  industry  after  the  discovery 
in  the  14th  century  of  a  method  of  curing  herring.  The  cod  and  her- 
ring fisheries  of  the  North  Sea  and  contiguous  waters  furnished  a 
practical  school  for  the  training  of  the  sailors  who  in  later  years 
manned  the  ships  which  brought  wealth  and  renown  to  the  Nether- 
lands and  the  other  maritime  countries  of  northern  Europe.  More- 
over, the  salt  and  dried  cod  and  herring  furnished  a  cheap  and  nutri- 
tuous  food  to  the  slaves  and  natives  who  worked  in  the  sugar  and 
other  plantations  in  the  East  and  West  Indies. 

Agriculture. — The  Netherlands  is  a  part  of  a  great  cattle-raising 
and  dairying  section  of  Europe  which  extends  from  Brittany  in  north- 
western France,  through  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  and  Denmark  to 
southern  Sweden.  In  the  Netherlands,  cattle-raising  is  the  leading 
agricultural  interest,  and  the  Dutch  dairy  products  command  respect  in 
England,  Germany,  and,  in  fact,  wherever  they  are  sold.  Cattle- 
breeding  is  carried  on  to  some  extent  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  but 
the  provinces  bordering  on  the  Zuider  Zee  have  the  largest  herds  and 
the  finest  cattle.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  abundant  rainfall  and  numer- 
ous fogs  keep  the  pastures  green  throughout  the  year,  an  intensive 
cultivation  of  fodder  crops  does  not  suffice  to  support  the  cattle,  and 
it  is  necessary  to  import  much  grain  and  other  fodder.  Before  the 
war,  the  Netherlands  imported  from  the  United  States  large  quantities 
of  corn  and  cottonseed  meal  for  this  purpose.  During  the  war  these 
importations  were  so  curtailed  that  the  Netherlands  was  forced  to 
slaughter  large  numbers  of  her  cattle.  A  ready  market  for  the  beef 
was  found  in  Germany.  This  emergency  demonstrates  clearly  how 
dependent  the  Netherlands  is  on  foreign  commerce  for  the  main- 
tenance of  her  most  important  industry. 

Manufacturing. — Like    the    dairy   business    the   manufacturing  in- 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  71 

dustries  of  the  Netherlands  depend  upon  other  countries  for  most  of  the 
necessary  raw  materials  and  for  a  market  for  most  of  the  finished 
products.  Outside  of  a  little  coal  and  some  clay,  the  Netherlands  has 
few  of  the  raw  materials  needed  by  manufacturing  industries.  How- 
ever, nearness  to  English  coal  fields,  access  to  the  raw  materials  from 
the  territory  drained  by  the  Rhine,  and  control  of  the  trade  of  her 
colonies  have  led  to  the  development  of  certain  specialized  manufac- 
tures. Dutch  brick,  pottery,  and  eathenware  long  have  been  famous; 
butter  and  cheese  factories  are  found  in  nearly  every  village;  and  cot- 
tons, woolens,  and  linens  of  high  quality  are  produced. 

Trade  and  Shipping. — The  position  of  the  Netherlands  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rhine  on  the  North  Sea  makes  it  one  of  the  gateways 
to  the  great  plain  of  northern  Europe.  The  Rhine  and  Schelde  rivers 
in  their  lower  course  divide  into  a  number  of  distributaries  which  with 
the  Zuider  Zee  and  other  indentations  of  the  sea  constitute  a  series 
of  natural  waterways.  Certain  of  these,  like  the  New  Meuse  at  Rotter- 
dam, have  been  so  improved  that  they  permit  the  entrance  of  the 
largest  ocean-going  steamships  while  others  have  been  canalized  and 
connected  by  canals  so  that  the  Netherlands  has  a  complex  system  of 
canals  with  a  total  length  of  1,500  miles.  The  Rhine  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  Dutch  commerce.  A  large  fleet  of  tug  boats  and  barges 
is  maintained  on  it,  and  steam  and  gasoline-propelled  barges  are  com- 
mon. Down  the  river  come  barley  and  hops  for  the  Dutch  breweries ; 
sand,  gravel,  and  stone  for  building  purposes ;  lumber  from  the  Black 
Forest;  and  machinery  and  other  manufactured  goods  from  the  Rhine 
cities;  while  up  the  river  goes  a  wealth  of  products  from  the  Dutch 
colonies  and  other  foreign  lands.  In  this  connection  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  Netherlands  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  most  im- 
portant waterway  of  Germany  so  that  it  is  no  wonder  that  Germany 
looks  enviously  on  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands,  the  two  small  coun- 
tries which  lie  across  her  most  direct  outlet  to  the  Atlantic. 

The  cosmopolitan  character  of  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the 
Netherlands  is  demonstrated  by  a  survey  of  the  principal  imports  and 
exports.  Spice,  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  and  indigo  come  from  Java  and 
the  other  East  Indian  islands;  gasoline,  raw  cotton,  and  cereals  from 
the  United  States;  coal  and  manufactured  goods  from  England;  iron 
ore  from  Spain;  grain  from  the  Baltic  provinces.  Archangel,  and  the 
Black  Sea;  and  cereals,  lumber,  stone,  and  other  products  from  Ger- 
many. The  export  trade  is  almost  as  varied,  for' the  tropical  product^ 
from  the  colonies  go  to  Germany ;  butter,  cheese,  fruits,  and  vegetables 


72  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

to  England;  fish  to  Germany  and  Belgium;  and  a  great  variety  of 
manufactured  and  other  goods  to  the  Dutch  colonies  and  other  areas 
served  by  the  Dutch  steamship  lines.  The  bulk  of  the  foreign  trade 
is  with  Germany,  England,  Java,  Russia,  and  the  United  States.  So 
important  has  the  trade  between  the  Netherlands  and  these  countries 
become  that  the  value  of  the  total  foreign  trade  more  than  trebled 
during  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Because  of  its  extensive 
overseas  interests  the  Netherlands,  in  addition  to  maintaining  the  Na- 
tional Mail  Service  to  the  East  and  West  Indies,  Africa,  and  the  United 
States,  has  a  large  number  of  tramp  steamers  under  its  flag.  So  dis- 
tinctly maritime  is  this  small  country  that  in  addition  to  Rotterdam  and 
Amsterdam,  both  ports  of  the  first  class,  there  are  at  least  twelve  other 
important  ports. 

Problems. 

1.  What  physiographic  and  economic  factors  were  involved  in  mak- 
ing Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam  first-class  ports? 

2.  State  the  geographic  and  economic  considerations  which  consti- 
tute the  basis  of  the  neutrality  of  the  Netherlands. 

3.  The  development  of  railroads  came  late  in  the  Netherlands. 
Why? 

4.  Belgium  has  a  much  greater  railroad  mileage  than  the  Nether- 
lands.    Why? 

5.  What  building  materials  would  you  expect  to  be  extensively 
used  in  the  Netherlands.    Why? 

6.  Name  and  locate  the  principal  islands  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
in  the  Dutch  West  Indies.  Which  island  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
has  the  largest  population?    Why? 

7.  Compare  the  natural  resources  of  the  Netherlands  and  Belgium, 
the  Netherlands  and  Scotland. 

8.  Why  are  "sugar  colonies'*  of  less  importance  to  European 
countries  at  present  than  in  1500? 

Denmark. 
Denmark  is  little  more  than  a  level  sandy  plain,  a  peninsula  and 
some  islands  of  low  fertility  surrounded  by  cold  water  from  which 
comes  much  cold,  raw,  misty,  and  rainy  weather.  Originally  there 
were  many  marshes.  There  are  no  waterfalls  or  minerals  of  import- 
ance, and  thus  no  sources  of  power  except  wood  and  peat — a  great 
calamity.  Hence,  farming  is  one  of  the  few  possible  occupations. 
It  has  been  developed  to  such  a  degree  of  perfection  that  many 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  73 

Englishmen  and  Americans  have  come  to  the  sandy  shores  of 
Denmark  to  learn  how  the  Danes  have  stamped  out  bovine  tuber- 
culosis and  developed  agricultural  cooperation  to  an  unusual 
degree. 

Find  further  evidence  along  this  line  in  bulletins  on  Denmark  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  in  "Agricultural 
Cooperation  in  Denmark,"  by  H.  Rider  Haggard. 

1.  Study  the  list  of  Danish  exports  in  the  Stateman's  Yearbook, 
and  see  how  they  show  the  place  of  agriculture  in  Danish  life. 
What  do  the  imports,  crop  averages,  and  exports  indicate  as  the 
main  industry  and  as  its  chief  auxiliary?  Note  especially  the  acre- 
ages of  man  food  and  cow  food.  Compare  the  number  of  cows  and 
hogs  in  the  United  States  and  Denmark  with  respect  to  population 
and  acreage.     Do  the  same  for  Iowa  and  Denmark. 

2.  Examine  Denmark's  mineral  imports  and  see  how  they  have 
been  pinched  by  the  warring  nations.  Show  how  England  and 
Germany,  exportefs  of  coal  and  iron,  might  have  bargained  with 
Denmark.  What  should  the  United  States  export  to  Denmark  dur- 
ing the  war?  What  should  we  not  export?  We  have  been  its 
chief  source  of  forage  grains. 

3.  If  Denmark  manufactures  cloth  or  machinery,  what  must  it 
import? 

4.  What  part  do  steel  rails,  cream  separators,  lumber  and  fish  pre- 
sumably play  in  Danish  commerce? 

5.  The  Danes  import  margarine  for  home  consumption  and 
export  butter.     What  do  you  infer  about  their  wealth? 

Norway  and  Sweden. 

The   Relation  of  Diverse   Physical    Conditions   of   Adjoining 
Countries  to  Industries  and  Politics. 

In  the  following  study  of  Norway  and  Sweden  contrast  the  two 
countries  at  every  step  in  order  to  see  how  far  geographic  differ- 
ences explain  the  historic  and  political  separation. 

1.  Physical  Features. — Norway  and  Sweden  make  up  what  is 
known  as  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula.  Norway  on  the  west  and 
Sweden  on  the  east  are  separated  by  a  mountain  system  known  to 
those  countries  as  the  "keel."  It  is  more  like  a  plateau,  however, 
with  peaks  rising  above  it  and  the  lower  land  cut  and  grooved  by 


74  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

deep  valleys.  Norway,  in  the  main,  makes  up  the  higher  part 
of  the  plateau,  so  that,  except  in  the  southeast,  the  country  is 
hilly  and  not  adapted  to  agriculture.  In  Sweden  the  topography 
is  more  favorable. 

Sweden  may  be  divided  into  four  physical  regions:  (1)  the 
mountain  and  highland  district  of  the  north,  (2)  the  central  low- 
land with  flat-lying  plains,  deeply  wooded,  containing  many  lakes, 

(3)  the    so-called    Sinland   highlands,   a   gently   undulating    country, 

(4)  the  lowlands  of  the  extreme  south,  made  up  of  very  flat-lying 
plains  with  rich  agricultural  land  and  extensive  meadows. 

Due  to  the  greater  elevations  in  the  west  and  erosion  by  ice  and 
water,  the  Norwegian  coast  is  deeply  indented,  and  many  of  the 
indentations  are  so  pronounced  as  to  isolate  fragments  of  the  pla- 
teau, making  a  series  of  islands  along  the  coast.  Inland  channels 
of  deep  water  are  thus  formed,  so  deep  that  large  steamers  can  ply 
close  to  land.  Only  at  rare  intervals  must  a  ship  leave  the  pro- 
tected waters  when  cruising  along  the  coast.     * 

What  are  the  agricultural  possibilities  in  countries  like  this? 
Compare  the  advantages  of  Norway  and  Sweden  in  this  respect. 
Would  you  expect  these  countries  to  export  or  import  food  stuffs? 
Verify  your  statements  by  noting  exports  and  imports  before  the 
war  for  both  Norway  and  Sweden.  Make  comparisons  of  the  two 
countries  on  a  per  capita  basis. 

2.  Climate. — The  climate  of  Norway  and  Sweden  is  unique  in 
comparison  with  other  countries  of  the  same  latitude.  Southern 
Sweden  has  about  the  same  latitude  as  Hudson  Bay,  yet  the  tem- 
perature in  January  averages  about  32°  in  Sweden  and  about  4"  F. 
at  Hudson  Bay.  The  comparative  mildness  of  the  Swedish  tem- 
perature is  due  to  prevailing  winds  from  the  southwest.  These 
winds  not  only  carry  the  ocean  temperatures  to  this  region,  but 
drive  the  upper  and  warmer  water  layers  of  the  Atlantic  toward  the 
east,  so  that  they  pile  up  along  the  coast.  This,  in  a  large  measure, 
accounts  for  the  ice-free  harbors  along  the  coast  of  Norway.  On 
the  southwest  coast  the  mean  daily  temperature  is  never  below  32° 
F.  The  Norwegian  summer  is  hottest  in  the  southeast  about 
Christiania  with  a  daily  mean  of  62.5°  F. 

The  cloudiness  of  these  countries  is  very  high.  In  the  north  as 
many  as  three  days  out  of  four  are  cloudy.  During  the  summer 
months  the  hours  of  sunshine  are  long,  as  in  all  nothern  countries, 
and  thus  the  heat  accumulated  in  twenty-four  hours  is  greater  than 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  75 

in  countries  farther  to  the  south.  The  winter  nights,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  extremely  long  and  the  day  correspondingly  short. 

The  rainfall  is  greatest  on  the  west  and  especially  the  southwest 
coast,  where  as  much  as  80  inches  is  recorded.  Eastward  it  de- 
creases, so  that  the  average  rainfall  for  Sweden  is  about  20  inches. 
In  both  Norway  and  Sweden  the  rainfall  on  the  whole  increases 
from  north  to  south. 

Compare  the  climate  of  Christiania  with  that  of  Chicago,  St. 
Louis,  New  York. 

Write  an  account  of  a  few  effects  that  such  a  climate  as  that  of 
Norway  might  have  upon  the  habits  and  industries  of  the  people. 
If  the  climate  of  Sweden  were  like  that  of  Italy  what  change  would 
you  expect  in  the  mode  of  life  of  the  Scandinavians? 

3.  Minerals. — Neither  Norway  nor  Sweden  is  rich  in  minerals. 
The  lack  of  coal  is  a  very  marked  feature  and  a  great  handicap. 
The  problem  of  supplying  fuel  for  heating  and  for  the  production 
of  energy  is  enormous.  This  has  been  especially  true  during  the 
war  period.  In  Norway  the  metallic  minerals  are  hardly  worth 
noting,  although  silver,  copper,  and  iron  are  mined  in  small  quan- 
tities. One  of  the  important  industries  is  the  mining  and  prepara- 
tion of  stone  products. 

In  Sweden  iron  ore  far  outranks  all  other  minerals.  Swedish 
iron  ore,  because  of  its  purity,  is  famous  the  world  over,  and  is  in 
great  demand.  Comparatively  little  of  the  ore  is  smelted  in  Sweden 
because  of  the  lack  of  coal.  The  little  that  is  smelted  is  done  with 
charcoal  and  makes  an  especially  valuable  kind  of  steel.  A  little 
copper,  silver,  gold,  lead,  and  zinc  are  produced. 

What  problems  face  Norway  in  making  a  great  industry  out  of 
its  rock  products?  What  problems  face  Sweden  as  to  iron.  Pay 
special  attention  to  (a)  probable  markets,  (b)  supply  of  labor,  (c) 
supply  of  shipping  and  railway  facilities,  (d)  supply  of  power, 
(e)  maintenance  of  labor,  and  (f)  kind  of  imports  in  return  for 
exports. 

4.  Forestry. — Norway  has  forests  in  the  southeast  and  in  the 
Trondhjem  districts,  and  forestry  is  a  relatively  important  in- 
dustry to  Norway.  But  as  a  world  producer,  Norway  is  insignificant, 
although  in  recent  years  the  pulp  industry  has  become  important. 
In  Sweden,  on  the  contrary,  the  widely  distributed  forests  are 
highly  important,  not  only  to  the  nation,  but  to  the  outside  world. 


y(i  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

The  sawmills  are  mostly  along  the  Bothnian  coast  and  are  run 
either  by  steam,  water  power,  or  electricity.  Vast  quantities  of 
timber  are  floated  down  the  larger  rivers  in  the  north  and  down 
flumes  and  canals  along  the  smaller  streams. 

What  nations  lead  in  the  production  of  timber?  How  does  Sweden 
rank?  Why  should  forest  industries  in  Sweden  rank  so  much  higher 
than  in  Norway?  In  getting  out  the  timber  what  problems  that  were 
relatively  simple  in  our  northern  forests  are  difficult  for  Norway  and 
Sweden?  What  is  the  relation  between  the  forests  and  water  power 
in  these  countries? 

5.  The  Fisheries. — Fishing  is  an  important  industry  for  both  Nor- 
way and  Sweden,  although  much  the  more  important  for  Norway. 
In  Norway  cod  fishing  ranks  first  but  mackerel,  salmon,  herring,  and 
sea  trout  fisheries  are  also  important.  Swedish  sea  fisheries  are  mostly 
in  the  calm  waters,  along  the  shore  and  mean  much  less  to  the  nation 
than  the  oceanic  cod  fisheries  do  to  Norway.  In  Norway  deep-sea  fish- 
ing has  had  a  tremendous  influence  on  the  life  and  development  of  the 
people. 

Enumerate  some  of  the  characteristics  of  Norwegian  development 
that  may  have  been  influenced  by  their  deep-sea  fisheries. 

6.  Commerce. — Considerably  more  than  one-third  of  Swedish  ex- 
ports are  forest  products.  Lumber  is  by  far  the  largest  item,  but  wood 
pulp  also  takes  high  rank.  Two  other  groups  of  products  stand  out 
prominently:  (1)  minerals,  especially  iron,  steel,  and  iron  ores,  (2) 
food  products  derived  from  animals,  such  as,  fish,  meat,  cheese,  and 
butter.  These  three  groups  make  up  about  two-thirds  of  the  entire 
export.  Sweden  has  two  great  items  of  import,  food  products  for 
both  animals  and  man,  and  coke  and  coal.  About  one-half  of  the 
entire  imports  come  under  these  headings. 

Norway  is  more  of  a  commercial  nation  than  Sweden.  In  fact,  on 
the  basis  of  her  population  she  is  the  first  nation  in  the  world  in  ship- 
ping. As  it  is,  her  mercantile  marine  before  the  war  was  exceeded 
only  by  those  of  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  the  United  States.  Her 
chief  exports  are  forest  products  and  fish  products.  These  make  up 
fully  two-thirds  of  the  exports.  Food,  especially  grains,  clothing,  and 
coal  make  up  the  leading  imports. 

Enumerate  the  factors  contributing  to  Norway's  greatness  as  a  fish- 
ing and  commercial  nation. 

Note  the  differences  in  natural  conditions  in  this  resoect  between 
Sweden  and  Norway. 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  yy 

How  do  the  kind  and  quantity  of  exports  from  these  countries  give 
an  index  as  to  the  nature  of  each  country? 

How  do  the  kind  and  quantity  of  imports  and  exports  show  the  life 
and  industries  of  the  people? 

At  various  times  a  close  political  union  has  existed  between  Norway 
and  Sweden.  Discuss  the  physical  factors  that  have  been  influential 
in  leading  to  this. 

What  are  the  geographical  reasons  which  led  Norway  to  allow  much 
of  her  mercantile  marine  to  be  destroyed  by  Germany  without  de- 
claring war? 

What  geographic  reasons  are  there  why  we  have  heard  less  about 
the  sinking  of  Swedish  than  of  Norwegian  ships? 

Compare  the  native  resources  of  Sweden  and  Norway  and  try  to 
determine  which  has  the  brighter  future  from  this  point  of  view. 

Which  has  the  better  geographic  position  ? 

Sum  up  the  geographical  conditions  of  all  kinds  which  today  keep 
Norway  and  Sweden  apart  not  only  physically  but  in  aims  and  in- 
terests. 

Austria  and  Hungary. 

Diversity  of  Relief  in  Relation  to  Diversity  of  People  and  Interests. 
General  Statement. 

A  study  of  the  physical  map  of  Austria  and  Hungary  will  show  the 
following  distinct  physiographic  provinces : 

1.  Hungarian  Plain. — This  is  the  largest  physiographic  unit  and  in- 
cludes nearly  one-third  of  the  total  area  of  the  empire  as  it  existed  in 
1914.  The  levelness  of  the  plain,  together  with  the  fact  that  its  maxi- 
mum rainfall  comes  in  the  summer,  makes  it  especially  adapted  to 
cereal  agriculture  of  the  extensive  type.  This  agricultural  tendency 
is  accentuated  by  the  fact  that  the  plain  is  not  a  region  of  any  con- 
siderable mineral  wealth.  Communication  within  the  plain  is  easy,  and 
the  Danube  affords  outlets  both  to  the  northwest  and  to  the  south- 
east.   Racial  unity  generally  prevails  throughout  the  plain. 

2.  Carpathia  and  Transylvania. — This  is  a  rugged  region  bordering 
the  Hungarian  plain  from  the  north  around  to  the  east.  Because  of  the 
rugged  nature  of  the  region,  and  the  presence  of  forests  and  of  mineral 
resources,  the  principal  occupations  are  mining  and  forestry.  Communi- 
cation is  difficult  and  in  the  higher  Transylvanian  section  the  mountains 
to  the  west  form  such  a  barrier  that  the  Rumanian  inhabitants  find 
it  easier  to  maintain   communication  with  Rumania   than   with   the 


78  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

Hungarian  plain.  Transylvania  contains  the  greater  part  of  the 
Rumanians  of  Hungary  who  make  up  14+per  cent  of  the  total  popula- 
tion of  that  kingdom.  These  Rumanians  do  not  speak  the  Magyar 
language. 

3.  Galicia  and  Biikozviiia. — To  the  northeast  of  Hungary  and 
separated  from  it  by  the  Carpathians,  locally  known  as  the  Beskids,  lie 
the  Austrian  provinces  of  Galicia  and  Bukowina,  which  together  may 
be  classed  as  a  distinct  physiographic  province.  Much  of  this  province 
consists  of  deeply  cut  valleys.  Of  the  two  main  lines  of  drainage,  one, 
the  Vistula,  is  tributary  to  the  Baltic,  and  the  other,  the  Dniester,  to  the 
Black  Sea.  In  addition  to  agricultural  and  forest  resources,  Galicia  pos- 
sesses the  third  most  important  oil  field  of  Europe.  The  part  center- 
ing about  Cracow  also  shows  considerable  industrial  development. 
Ethnically  Galicia  and  Bukowina  are  principally  Slav,  and  together  they 
contain  about  30  per  cent  of  the  population  of  Austria. 

4.  Bohemia  and  Moravia. — These  Austrian  provinces  constitute  a 
lowland  area  somewhat  similar  to  Hungary,  but  much  smaller,  less 
level,  and  with  the  advantage  of  some  valuable  mineral  resources.  A 
low  range  of  mountains  separates  the  two,  and  the  physiographic 
separation  is  further  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  drainage  of  Bo- 
hemia is  carried  to  the  North  Sea  by  the  Elbe,  while  that  of  Moravia 
finds  its  way  into  the  Danube.  These  two  provinces,  together  with 
Silesia,  are  one  of  the  industrial  sections  of  Austria.  Racially  the 
Bohemians  are  Czechs,  a  people  who  have  their  own  language,  who  hate 
the  Austrians,  and  whose  political  aspirations  look  toward  an  inde- 
pendent state.  The  Moravians  are  Slovaks  and  are  in  sympathy,  politi- 
cally, with  Czechs. 

5.  Upper  and  Lozver  Austria. — These  two  provinces  are  classed  to- 
gether and  separated  from  the  preceding  because  of  their  racial  unity 
even  though  they  are  not  a  clearly  defined  physiographic  unit.  They 
contain  the  bulk  of  the  German  element  of  Austria  and  Hungary. 
Favorable  location  with  respect  to  lines  of  communication,  possession  ' 
of  mineral  and  forest  resources,  and  racial  characteristics  have  been 
elements  that  have  contributed  to  make  this  the  industrial  section 
of  Austria. 

6.  Alpine  District.  The  several  provinces  within  the  Alps  constitute 
another  distinct  physiographic  region.  Lumbering  and  woodworking 
are  the  most  important  of  the  industries.  What  little  farming  is  done 
is  of  the  intensive  type.  Important  mineral  resources  are  lacking. 
The  people  are  largely  German,  though  in  the  last  century  the  exten- 


I 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  79 

sion  of  the  boundaries  to  the  southward  brought  in  a  considerable 
Latin  element.  In  the  more  maccessible  portions,  there  are  also  sup- 
posed to  be  remnants  of  some  of  the  earliest  races  of  Europe. 

7.  Karst  Region. — This  section  comprises  the  provinces  of  Croatia, 
Bosnia,  Herzgovina  and  parts  of  Carniola,  Slavonia  and  Dalmatia. 
Limestone  abounds,  and  here  is  developed  the  classic  example  of  rough 
topography  known  as  "karst."  The  mineral  resources  are  considerable, 
but  they  are  as  yet  little  developed.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry, 
but  it,  too,  is  in  a  low  state  of  development.  One  great  handicap  to 
agriculture  is  the  fact  that  the  major  part  of  the  rainfall  comes  in  the 
non-growing  season.     Ethnically  the  people  are  Jugo-Slavs. 

8.  Adriatic  Provinces. — The  narrow  coastal  strip  draining  into  the 
Adriatic  forms  a  separate  physiographic  province.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  though  Austria  and  Hungary  are  relatively  near  the  Adriatic 
coast,  they  do  not  form  its  natural  hinterland.  The  people  of  this  sec- 
tion are  largely  of  Latin  and  Greek  origin,  and  their  outlook  is  more 
toward  the  sea  than  toward  the  empire  at  their  back,  and  Austria- 
Hungary  is  regarded  as  an  inland  empire. 

Problems 

1.  What  relation  have  geographic  conditions  to  the  many  different 
ethnic  units  within  Austria  and  Hungary. 

2.  Which  shows  the  greater  ethnic  diversity,  Austria  or  Hungary, 
and  why? 

3.  a.    On  a  map  note  the  Austrian  provinces,  and  note  particularly 

how  Austria  is  located  with  respect  to  Hungary. 

b.  Do  you  think  political  unity  in  Austria  is  strong?  State  your 
reasons. 

c.  Who  are  the  governing  people  in  Austria?  What  percentage 
of  the  population  are  they,  and  how  do  they  maintain  their 
political  control? 

4.  Apply  questions  3b  and  3c  above  to  Hungary. 

5.  How  nearly  is  Austria-Hungary  an  economic  unit?  (See  table 
page  38.) 

6.  In  making  up  her  armies  would  it  be  wise  for  Austria-Hungary 
to  mix  the  different  races  in  the  unit,  say  regiments,  or  make  separate 
units  for  each  race?     Explain. 

7.  What  are  the  elements  of  strength  and  of  weakness  of  Austria- 
Hungary  as  a  political  unit?  What  vulnerable  point  have  the  Allies 
attacked  ? 


8o  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

8.  Is  Austria-Hungary  an  element  of  weakness  or  one  of  strength 
to  Germany  as  an  ally,  in  the  latter's  Berlin  to  Bagdad  program? 
Explain.  Should  Germany  be  successful  in  carrying  out  this  program, 
what  would  be  the  status  of  Austria-Hungary?    Explain. 

Russia. 

I.     Influence  of  Isolation  and  Monotony  of  Climate  and  Relief 
on  Habits  and  Character  of  the  People. 

General  Relations. — The  magnitude  and  solidarity  of  Russia  are  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  small  size  and  diversity  of  the  other  great  Euro- 
pean powers.  Its  area  is  so  great  that  the  various  parts  have  little 
relation  to  one  another  and  little  interest  in  each  others  affairs.  In 
position  Russia  stands  apart  from  the  regions  of  industrial  and  com- 
mercial activity  and  may  be  considered  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  un. 
organized  and  undeveloped  possibilities.  The  world  has  long  wondered 
whether  this  mass  would  gradually  become  cemented  and  develop  as 
a  unit  or  whether  the  disintegrating  influences  would  prevail  with  the 
consequent  breaking  up  into  smaller  nations. 

Russia's  physical  isolation  from  the  leading  commercial  nations  is 
most  pronounced.  On  the  north  the  Arctic  Ocean  is  of  little  value 
as  an  avenue  of  communication.  Although  the  port  of  Murman  is 
now  open  all  the  year  and  Archangel  for  six  to  nine  months,  the  un- 
inhabited character  of  the  country  around  these  ports  and  the  great 
distance  from  the  agricultural  and  industrial  regions  prevent  them 
from  being  much  used  except  under  the  stress  of  war.  On  the  east, 
European  Russia  merges  gradually  into  the  fairly  prosperous  regions 
of  western  Siberia,  but  farther  east  an  undeveloped  and  inhospitable 
tract  of  mountains  interposes  a  vast  obstacle  to  commerce  with  Japan 
and  North  America.  The  sale  of  Alaska  to  the  United  States  was  due 
to  the  alienation  caused  by  unbridged  distance.  On  the  south  Russia 
is  much  less  effectively  isolated  than  on  the  north  and  east.  Yet  deserts 
such  as  those  of  central  Asia,  an  inland  lake  like  the  Caspian  Sea,  and 
high  mountains  like  the  Caucasus  Range,  which  runs  west  as  far  as 
the  Sea  of  Azov,  are  a  most  eflfective  barrier  to  prosperous  commercial 
enterprises.  Only  from  the  Sea  of  Azov  westward  does  the  Black  Sea 
for  a  few  hundred  miles  offer  easy  access  to  the  outside  world.  Yet 
even  there  the  straits  of  the  Bosphorus  and  the  Dardanelles  under 
the  rule  of  their  former  Turkish  masters  checked  the  flow  of 
commerce.  On  the  west  a  rigorous  climate  bars  Russia  from  Scan- 
dinavia on  the  north,  while  in  the  south  the  rugged  topography  of  the 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  8i 

Carpathians  interposes  a  less  formidable  barrier  toward  Austria.  Only 
in  the  middle  is  there  no  effective  barrier.  It  has  been  well  said  that 
"Germany  is  Russia's  only  neigfhbor." 

The  Great  War  clearly  demonstrated  the  physical  isolation  of  Russia. 
Hostilities  with  the  Central  Powers  closed  the  greater  part  of  her 
commercial  frontier.  The  difficulties  of  furnishing  supplies  through 
the  White  Sea  and  the  Pacific  ports  were  so  great  that  her  fighting 
efficiency  became  quickly  and  most  seriously  reduced.  This  led  to 
military  disasters  which  in  turn  made  possible  the  revolt  which  over- 
threw the  government.  With  the  complete  withdrawal  of  the  Allies' 
support  Russia  lay  prostrate,  and  the  Allies  were  confronted  by  the 
question  of  how  to  give  real  assistance  to  the  fallen  country.  The 
fact  that  isolation  from  Germany  is  less  complete  than  from  the  En- 
tente Allies  makes  this  question  the  more  difficult  of  solution. 

The  monotony  of  Russia  does  as  much  as  the  isolation  to  retard  her 
progress.  One  of  the  most  pronounced  elements  of  monotony  is  the 
absence  of  regions  of  high  relief.  Most  of  the  plain  of  European 
Russia  is  less  than  600  feet  above  sea  level,  and  almost  nowhere  are 
there  heights  exceeding  1,200  feet. 

Only  on  the  borders  of  the  country,  in  the  Urals,  Caucasus,  and 
southern  Crimea  does  the  land  rise  into  real  mountains.  Because  of 
their  peripheral  location  these  mountains  tend  toward  isolation  and 
do  not  give  topographic  variety  to  the  great  interior.  The  Valdai 
Hills,  whence  flow  some  of  the  longest  rivers  in  the  world,  reach  an 
altitude  of  only  1,150  feet.  Though  important  as  a  watershed,  they 
have  little  effect  on  the  general  topography  of  the  plain,  and  the  rivers 
which  flow  from  them  are  rarely  interrupted  by  rapids  and  falls  such 
as  characterize  the  streams  of  more  rugged  countries.  Thus  Euro- 
pean Russia  may  be  considered  as  a  vast  unbroken  plain  hemmed  in 
on  all  sides  but  the  west  by  icebound  ocean,  mountains  and  inland  seas. 

The  climate  of  Russia  also  tends  toward  monotony.  On  the  whole 
it  is  but  slightly  affected  by  the  ocean  and  hence  is  classed  as  typically 
continental.  On  the  west,  to  be  sure,  from  Petrograd  southwest- 
ward  to  Poland  the  influence  of  the  Atlantic  penetrates  across  the 
plains  of  southern  Scandinavia  and  northern  Germany.  Here  the  pre- 
cipitation averages  above  20  inches  per  year.  Much  of  it  comes  as 
snow  and  covers  the  ground  for  more  than  four  months.  Low  as  this 
precipitation  is  and  cold  as  western  Russia  may  be,  the  influence  of 
the  ocean  is  still  clear,  for  farther  inland  toward  the  east  the  winters 
are  colder,  the  summers  hotter,  and  the  rainfall  less  than  in  the  Baltic 


82  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

and  Polish  regions.  In  some  places  the  range  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest  temperature  is  150°  F. 

The  plains  of  Russia  permit  the  cold  winds  from  the  north  to  reach 
far  to  the  southward.  Hence,  even  at  Odessa  the  snow  cover  lasts 
from  70  to  90  days  per  year.  Likewise,  in  summer  the  hot  winds  from 
the  dry  southeast  may  carry  their  blasting  effects  into  the  agricultural 
interior.  Thus,  in  southeastern  Russia  the  rainfall  is  much  less  than 
in  western  Russia,  and  the  region  around  the  Caspian  Sea  is  very  arid. 

In  spite  of  the  great  extremes  of  temperature  the  climate  of  Russia 
brings  mtense  monotony  into  the  life  of  the  Russians.  In  the  first 
place,  all  parts  of  the  country  are  so  much  alike  that  intercourse  of  one 
part  with  another  is  not  able  to  do  much  in  the  way  of  introducing 
new  ideas.  In  the  second  place,  a  far  more  important  effect  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  cold  winters  make  it  almost  impossible  for  the 
farmers  to  do  any  work  half  the  year.  The  winter  days  are  short  and 
dark,  for  even  Odessa  in  southern  Russia  lies  as  far  north  as  Quebec. 
Since  most  of  the  Russians  are  farmers  this  means  that  for  many 
months  the  majority  of  the  people  sit  in  their  close,  stuffy  houses, 
doing  nothing.  They  talk  and  talk  and  plan  great  things,  but  during 
the  winter  nothing  can  be  accomplished.  Then  when  spring  finally 
comes  in  May  there  is  a  sudden  rush  of  farm  work  which  for  a  time 
takes  all  the  people's  energy.  They  can  not  work  so  well,  however, 
as  people  who  are  in  the  habit  of  steady  work  at  all  seasons.  Thus, 
the  Russians  as  a  people  have  acquired  the  habit  of  being  idle  for  long 
periods  and  working  vigorously  but  not  very  effectively  at  others. 
They  have  also  acquired  the  habit  of  making  great  plans  but  not  carry- 
ing them  out. 

Although  the  habits  of  the  people  are  much  the  same  all  over  Russia, 
there  is  a  good  deal  of  diversity  of  race  and  language.  Except  in  the 
case  of  border  peoples,  like  the  Georgians,  all  the  races  of  Russia  except 
the  Jews  have  lived  upon  terms  of  comparative  equality  and  have  shown 
little  jealousy  of  one  another  until  they  were  stirred  up  by  Germany. 
The  Tartars  of  the  southeast,  the  Cossacks  of  the  south,  the  Little 
Russians,  the  Poles,  and  the  Lithuanians  are  conspicuous  examples  of 
diverse  peoples  who  are  ready  and  able  to  live  together  in  harmony 
if  only  they  are  all  given  equal  rights  in  a  just  government. 

Special  Problems. 

1.  The  physical  isolation  of  Russia. — On  an  outline  map  of  Europe 
or  Eurasia  locate  seaports  and  inland  border  towns  through  which 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  83 

trade  may  be  carried  on  by  Russia  with  foreign  countries.  Which  of 
these  cities  are  so  situated  that  their  ocean  communications  are  not 
controlled  by  any  other  country?  What  physical  and  climatic  condi- 
tions impair  the  value  of  these  places  as  commercial  gateways?  List 
those  controlled  by  Germany ;  by  Austria  and  Hungary ;  by  Turkey ;  by 
Sweden.  Compute  the  approximate  distances  of  Petrograd,  Moscow, 
Kiev,  and  Samara  (1)  from  the  northern  ports  of  ^Murmansk  and 
Archangel,  (2)   from  Vladivostok,  (3)  from  the  German  frontier. 

From  these  data  prepare  a  statement  as  to  the  connection  between 
Russia's  isolation  and  her  failure  in  the  Great  War. 

2.  Relief. — Plains  are  generally  considered  to  be  highly  favorable 
to  national  progress.  They  afford  easy  communication  (1)  by  rail, 
(2)  by  wagon  road,  (3)  by  canal,  and  (4)  by  river.  (5)  They  are 
blessed  with  deep  rich  soil,  and  (6)  they  permit  of  a  dense  popula- 
tion. Show  in  detail  whether  Russia  really  enjoys  these  advantages. 
In  these  respects  how  does  Russia  compare  with  the  western  lowland 
of  Europe  and  with  the  Mississippi  Valley  region  of  the  United  States? 
On  this  basis  do  you  think  that  the  relief  of  Russia  is  an  advantage  or 
a  disadvantage?  How  far  is  it  responsible  for  the  fact  that  Russia 
is  the  most  backward  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe? 

3.  Climate. — On  an  outline  map  mark  the  belts  where  the  rainfill 
is  less  than  10  inches,  10  to  20  inches,  above  20  inches.  On  the  same 
map  draw  the  isotherms  for  July  in  solid  lines  and  for  January  with 
dotted  lines.  How  much  of  Russia  is  too  warm  for  man's  best  physical 
development  in  summer?  How  much  is  too  cold  for  great  mental 
activity  (average  below  32°)  in  winter? 

Compare  the  position  of  Russia  with  that  of  Canada.  Compare  rain- 
fall and  temperature  conditions  of  Russia  with  those  of  the  parts  of 
Canada  and  the  United  States  lying  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Take  another  outline  map  of  Russia  and  with  the  Atlas  of  World 
Agriculture  as  a  guide  mark  by  selected  symbols  the  areas  where 
spring  wheat,  winter  wheat,  barley,  rye,  and  forests  are  most  abun- 
dant. What  relations  are  evident  between  climate  and  agriculture? 
To  whan  extent  does  climate  create  diversity  of  interests  in  Russia? 
Compare  the  interests  of  the  herdsmen  in  the  dry  southeast  with  those 
of  the  peasants  who  raise  rye  in  the  central  regions  and  those  who 
raise  wheat  in  the  south.  How  do  these  differences  compare  with  the 
difference  between  the  manufacturing  people  of  the  west  or  north. 
of  England  and  the  farming  people  of  the  eastern  plain. 

4.  Summary. — Write  out  a  brief  statement  of  the  influence  of 


84  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

position,  climate,  and  relief  in  shaping  the  trend  of  Russian  develop- 
ment.    Distinguish  between  effective  and  ineffective  influences. 

II.     The  Resources  of  Russia  in  Relation  to  Other  Countries. 

Minerals. — Notwithstanding  the  monotonous  relief  of  Russia  the 
mineral  resources  are  highly  varied  and  abundant.  Among  these 
should  be  named  coal,  iron,  petroleum,  gold,  platinum,  mercury,  man- 
ganese, salt,  and  building  stone.      (See  table  page  45.) 

Although  coal  of  some  kind  is  mined  in  several  parts  of  European 
Russia,  good  coal  is  found  only  in  the  Donetz  basin  of  southern 
Russia  and  in  the  Dombrov  district  of  Poland.  Other  good  deposits 
are  found  in  central  Siberia  south  of  Tomsk,  but  they  are  far  from 
Europe. 

Although  the  demands  arising  from  proximity  to  other  minerals 
and  to  industrial  centers  are  greatest  near  the  Polish 'coal,  develop- 
ment has  been  greatest  in  the  Donetz  basin  because  of  both  quality 
and  quantity.  There  has  been  little  development  in  the  Caucasus,  in 
Turkestan,  and  in  Siberia. 

Iron  ore  of  good  quality  is  found  in  Ekaterinoslav  and  Kherson. 
Deposits  are  also  worked  in  the  Ural  region  in  central  Russia  and  in 
Poland  but  are  generally  of  lower  grade  than  those  first  named. 
Farther  to  the  north  in  the  lake  country  are  some  bog  ores  of  inferior 
quality. 

In  petroleum,  Russia  has  been  a  great  producer.  The  Baku  region 
stands  as  a  conspicuous  example  of  intensive  development  in  a  country 
where  extensiveness  is  almost  a  national  characteristic.  Outside  of 
the  Caucasus-Caspian  Sea  region  petroleum  has  been  found  in  the 
Urals  and  in  Turkestan,  but  no  great  production  has  yet  occurred. 

The  Caucasus  region  is  rich  in  manganese.  Before  the  Great  War 
this  was  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  the  world's  supply  and  large 
quantities  were  exported  to  England,  the  United  States,  and  Germany. 

The  Urals  are  especially  rich  in  gold  and  platinum.  In  gold  Russia 
ranked  fourth  among  the  countries  of  the  world  and  in  platinum  pre- 
eminently first,  producing  over  90  per  cent  of  the  total  supply. 

Find  the  per  capita  production  of  coal,  iron,  petroleum,  and  gold  in 
Russia,  Germany,  England,  Mexico,  Japan,  Canada,  and  the  United 
States.  What  do  your  figures  indicate  as  to  the  importance  of  mineral 
industries  in  Russia? 

Forests. — Russia  ranks  as  one  of  the  foremost  countries  of  the  world 
in  forest  resources.     This  is  true  no  matter  whether  Siberia  be  in- 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  85 

eluded  or  not.  The  forest  belt  extends  almost  entirely  across  Russia 
from  Petrograd  eastward  and  southeastward  to  the  Urals  and  on  into 
Siberia.  To  the  north  lie  the  tundras  and  to  the  south  the  treeless 
steppes.  The  upper  slopes  of  the  Caucasus  are  forested  and  the  Ural 
region  is  heavily  tree-covered.  The  importance  of  the  timber  supply 
is  reflected  in  the  general  use  of  wood  for  houses  and  boats  as  well 
as  for  fuel,  both  in  houses  and  for  locomotives.  The  forests  are 
largely  government  owned  and  have  been  developed  for  the  double 
purpose  of  conservation  and  revenue. 

Soils. — The  soils  of  Russia  are  varied  and  predominately  fertile. 
The  northern  part  is  glacial  and  in  the  northwest  in  Finland  and 
northward,  boulders  of  all  sizes  are  numerous.  These  were  trans- 
ported by  the  ice  from  the  northern  Scandinavian  mountains  and  from 
the  granitoid  outcrops  of  Finland.  As  one  leaves  this  district  and 
goes  eastward  or  southward  the  texture  is  finer,  so  over  much  of  the 
glaciated  area  the  soil  is  a  mixture  of  sand,  silt,  and  clay  much  like 
that  of  Iowa  or  northern  Illinois.  Still  farther  south  lies  the  famous 
"black  earth  country"  with  a  soil  of  high  fertility,  greatly  resembling 
the  loess  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  region  and  by  some  claimed  to  be 
identical  with  it.  This  lies  southwest  of  Moscow  ana  comprises  an 
area  of  over  350,000  square  miles.  Southeastern  Russia  is  an  oldsea- 
bottom,  parts  of  which  have  become  highly  impregnated  with  salts 
due  to  the  evaporation  of  saline  brines  and  a  rainfall  so  low  that  they 
have  not  been  leached  out.  On  the  whole,  however,  even  this  area 
is  fertile.  Its  productivity  is  low  because  of  insufficient  rainfall 
rather  than  because  of  an  unresponsive  soil. 

Specific  Problems. 

1.  Mineral  Resources. — A.  Mark  on  an  outline  map  the  principal 
iron  ore  regions.  For  each  iron  ore  district  determine  its  distance  to  the 
nearest  important  coal  field.  In  general  how  do  distances  compare  with 
those  from  northern  Minnesota  to  Chicago  and  the  ports  on  Lake  Erie  ? 
From  maps  in  the  Industrial  Atlas  study  transportation  facilities  be- 
tween coal  and  iron  regions.  Compare  Russia,  the  United  States, 
England,  and  Germany  in  this  respect. 

B.  Locate  definitely  the  principal  centers  of  petroleum  production. 
From  the  Statesman's  Yearbook  or  the  encyclopedia  determine  the 
c^pproximate  production  and  exports  of  petroleum  from  Russia.  How 
did  Russia  compare  with  the  United  States  before  the  war?  How 
account  for  the  high  state  of  development  of  this  industry?     What 


86  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE  ' 

relation  have  the  petroleum  regions  borne  to  the  military  operations 
in  the  southeast? 

C.  What  are  the  principal  uses  of  platinum?  What  countries 
served  as  the  principal  markets.?  What  "effects  have  Russia's  internal 
disorders  had  on  the  production  of  platinum?  How  has  this  affected 
Ihe  AlHes? 

2.  Soils  and  Agriculture. — Correlate  the  principal  cereal-producing 
areas  of  Russia  with  the  kinds  of  soils  which  predominate  there. 
What  is  the  determining  factor  in  giving  rise  to  the  cattle  industry 
of  the  Cossack  region?  Compare  the  soil  and  topographic  conditions 
of  the  wheat  region  of  Russia  with  those  of  the  wheat  region^  of  the 
Central  Plains  of  the  United  States.  What  varieties  of  wheat  and 
oatS;  developed  in  Russia,  have  been  introduced  into  the  United  States 
with  extraordinary  success? 

From  information  obtainable  in  the  yearbooks  of  the  U,  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  determine  the  rank  of  Russia  in  production  and 
exports  of  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  and  sugar  beets.  In  general,  whai: 
is  true  of  yields  per  acre  compared  with  other  countries?  How  ac- 
count for  this?  To  what  countries  did  Russia  export  large  quantites 
of  grain  before  the  war?  How  did  Russia's  entry  into  the  war  affect 
her  commercial  relations  in  this  regard?  What  was  the  effect  on  the 
demand  for  supplies  from  the  United  States? 

Summarize  Russian  agriculture  in  its  relation  to  soil  belts;  to  cli- 
matic conditions;  to  home  consumption;  to  foreign  trade. 

3.  .  The  Forest. — Summarize  the  climatic  conditions  prevalent  i:. 
the  forested  region  as  regards  temperature,  rain  and  snow.  What  ap- 
parently marks  the  northern  limit  of  forests?  What  the  southern 
limit?  What  possible  use  can  be  made  of  forest  products  west  of 
the  Urals  in  the  iron  ore  region? 

Trace  the  trans-Siberian  railroad  from  Petrograd  to  Moscow  and 
eastward.  What  relation  does  it  bear  to  the  forested  zone?  Infer 
the  use  made  of  the  forest  in  building  this  railway. 

Summary. — Make  a  list  of  the  15  largest  cities  of  Russia  and  locate 
them  on  the  outline  map. 

From  the  preceding  studies  of  climate,  minerals,  soils,  and  forests, 
together  with  distribution  of  population  as  indicated  by  the  location 
of  cities,  prepare  a  concise  summary  of  the  industrial  development  of 
Russia  as  affected  by  these  factors.  In  this  connection  discuss  also 
the  human  element  and  bring  out  clearly  the  geographic  advantages 
and  disadvantages. 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  87 

Italy. 
Contrast  Between  North  and  South  Italy. 

General  Statement. — Few  countries  of  equal  size  are  more  diverse 
than  Italy.  The  north  is  among  the  most  prosperous  and  progressive 
parts  of  the  world,  but  the  south  is  decidedly  backward.  In  the  north 
not  only  is  agriculture  highly  developed,  but  manufacturing  is  well 
advanced  in  proportion  to  the  resources  of  coal  and  metals,  and  science 
and  art  are  well  established.  In  the  south,  on  the  contrary,  there  is 
almost  nothing  in  the  way  of  manufacturing,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
water  transportation  is  easier  than  in  the  north.  Instead  of  science 
and  art  there  is  the  most  widespread  illiteracy.  Farming  is  the  chief 
occupation,  but  it  is  carried  on  much  more  carelessly  than  in  the  north. 
Moreover,  a  large  number  of  the  farmers  also  lazily  depend  upon  flocks. 
The  population  is  much  less  dense  than  in  the  north,  but  the  people 
are  poorer,  in  spite  of  the  larger  amount  of  land  at  their  disposal. 
Many  are  undernourished,  and  this  combines  with  other  things  to 
cause  disease. 

A  traveler  in  northern  Italy  observes  about  the  same  sort  of  city 
and  country  life  as  in  the  rest  of  western  Europe.  But  when  he 
reaches  southern  Italy  he  is  struck  with  the  atmosphere  of  ease  that  is 
found  in  cities  and  in  the  country.  Doorsteps  are  often  filled  with 
idle  people.  Happy  lolling  seems  a  popular  occupation.  Idle  hands 
seem  more  common  than  busy  ones.  To  many  travelers,  "sunny" 
Italy  of  the  South  is  remembered  as  "lazy"  Italy,  while  northern  Italy 
seems  a  land  of  industry. 

Problems. — 1.  In  order  to  understand  this  contrast  between  the 
north  and  south  the  first  necessity  is  to  compare  the  climatic  differences. 
On  a  map  of  the  rainfall  of  Europe  find  the  average  rainfall  in  the 
north  and  in  the  south  of  Italy.  Which  part  gets  a  rainfall  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  crops  while  the  temperature  is  favorable,  that  is,  in 
the  warmest  six  months  of  the  year  ?  Which  part  must  depend  chiefly 
on  irrigation?  In  the  encyclopedia  or  Bartholomew's  Atlas  find  the 
temperature  by  months  at  Naples  or  some  place  south  of  that  city, 
and  compare  it  with  a  similar  record  of  some  place,  such  as  Milan, 
in  northern  Italy.  How  many  months  average  above  65°  in  each 
case,  and  how  many  average  belov/  40°?  What  do  you  infer  from 
this  as  to  the  stimulating  quality  of  the  climate  in  the  two  regions? 

2.  Look  up  malaria  in  the  encyclopedia  and  other  sources.  What 
do  you  find  as  to  the  distribution  of  malaria  in  Italy  ?    Remember  that 


88  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

malaria  occurs  chiefly  in  places  where  pools  of  water  are  stagnant 
during  the  summer.  Are  such  pools  likely  to  appear  in  a  place  where 
irrigation  is  practised  and  where  during  the  dry  season  the  streams 
diminish  until  only  small  pools  remain,  or  in  places  where  the  rainfall 
is  sufficient  to  keep  the  streams  running  all  the  year? 

3.  Enumerate  the  neighboring  peoples  of  northern  Italy.  With 
what  peoples  do  the  southern  Italians  come  into  easy  contact?  What 
effect  should  these  different  sets  of  neighbors  produce  upon  the  north- 
ern Italians  as  contrasted  with  the  southern  Italians? 

Turkey. 
Constantinople  and  the  Straits  as  a  Geographic  and  Political  Problem. 

General  Statement. — The  Straits  near  Constantinople  are  the  only 
water  barrier  between  southeastern  Europe  and  the  part  of  western 
Asia  between  the  Black  and  Mediterranean  Sas.  The  narrow  channel 
of  the  Bosphorus  which  unites  the  Black  Sea  with  the  Sea  of  Marmora 
is  18  miles  long  with  a  minimum  width  of  800  yards,  a  maximum 
width  of  2^  miles,  and  a  depth  of  66  fathoms  in  mid-stream.  In  the 
center  a  strong  surface  current  from  the  Black  Sea  sometimes  reaches 
a  speed  of  about  six  miles  an  hour  in  narrow  places,  but  below  the 
surface  and  along  the  shores  there  is  a  strong  counter-current.  The 
narrowness  of  the  Straits  and  their  "bottle  neck"  character  makes 
them  easy  of  military  control.  This  is  one  reason  why  Russia  has 
never  been  able  to  wrest  them  from  Turkey,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  Russia's  great  grain  trade  and  much  of  its  other  trade  must  pass 
this  way.  Herein  also  is  the  main  cause  of  the  British  naval  disaster 
at  the  Dardanelles  in  1915. 

From  the  earliest  times  there  has  been  a  constant  flow  not  only  of 
trade  along  the  waterway  at  Constantinople  but  of  immigrants  into 
Europe  across  the  Straits.  This  is  evidenced  by  the  racial  stratification 
of  Europe  in  the  Balkans  and  farther  west  in  Europe.  Usually,  the 
farther  westward  the  race  the  earlier  the  time  of  its  invasion. 

From  very  early  times  commerce  as  well  as  immigration  has  made 
this  a  principal  route  between  Asia  and  Europe.  Here  the  silks  of 
China,  the  spices  and  gums  of  the  Spice  Islands  and  of  India,  and 
the  coral  and  jade  of  India — products  of  high  value  and  small  bulk — 
were  brought  in  exchange  for  the  metal  ware,  coin,  and  other  products 
of  western  Europe.  It  was  largely  to  this  traffic  that  Constantinople 
owed  its  early  growth ;  the  benefits  of  the  trade  were  felt  even  as  far 
as  the  towns  of  western  Europe.     The  strangling  of  this  trade  by 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  89 

the  Seljukian  Turks,  which  culminated  in  their  capture  of  Constan- 
tinople in  1453,  had  an  important  bearing  on  the  ultimate  rounding  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  the  Portuguese  and  the  discovery  of 
America.  The  so-called  Berlin  to  Bagdad  route  is  an  attempt  to  re- 
vive this  land  route.  Naturally,  Constantinople,  where  the  water 
traffic  between  the  Black  and  Mediterranean  Seas  meets  this  land 
traffic,  has  always  been  one  of  the  world's  great  cities  and  is  today 
one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  before  the  peace  conference. 

Before  the  war,  the  Russian  Empire,  in  spite  of  its  control  of  be- 
tween one-seventh  and  one-sixth  of  the  total  land  surface  of  the  globe, 
had  no  ice- free  ports  other  than  those  on  the  Black  Sea.  These  were 
of  little  value  so  long  as  their  outlet  to  the  Mediterranean  was  con- 
trolled by  a  foreign  power.  For  two  and  a  half  centuries  one  of  the 
great  objects  of  Russian  expansion  was  to  gain  control  of  an  ice-free 
port  to  the  open  sea.  Germany  checked  westward  expansion,  Japan 
prevented  any  Russian  control  of  ice- free  ports  on  the  Pacific  south 
of  Vladivostok,  England  gave  Russia  no  chance  to  expand  to  the 
Indian  Ocean,  and  Turkey  backed  by  England  kept  the  doorway  of 
the  Bosphorus  and  Dardanelles  tightly  closed  to  Russian  warships. 
Thus  Russia,  and  particularly  the  great  cereal-producing  regions  of 
European  Russia,  felt  seriously  handicapped  by  the  lack  of  an  unre- 
stricted outlet  to  the  sea.  Thus  the  importance  of  Constantinople  and 
the  Straits  was  constantly  brought  to  the  world's  attention. 

In  addition  to  all  this,  Constantinople  is  vitally  important  because 
a  strong  nation  in  control  of  the  Bosphorus  stands  always  as  a  menace 
to  British  control  of  Egypt  and  of  India,  and  threatens  the  severance 
of  the  flow  of  British  commerce  through  the  Suez  Canal. 

To  summarize,  there  are  three  vitally  important  points  to  consider 
in  connction  with  the  geography  of  the  Straits  at  Constantinople: 
(1)  the  great  land  route  between  Europe  and  Asia;  (2)  the  Straits 
as  the  natural  water  outlet  of  the  great  agricultural  regions  of  south- 
ern Russia;  and  (3)  Great  Britain's  vital  interests  in  Egypt  and  in 
India. 

•  Problems. — 1.  How  does  this  three-fold  importance  of  the  Straits 
account  for  the  fact  that  Turkey,  the  "sick  man  of  Europe,"  with. its 
misrule  has  been  able  to  maintain  its  control  of  Constantinople? 

2.  Write  an  estimate  of  the  relative  importance  of  the  Straits  to 
Russian,  British,  and  German  interests  both  commercially  and  po- 
litically. Account  for  the  present  British  and  Russian  relationship  in 
regard  to  them. 


90  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

3.  What  advantages  and  disadvantages  are  there  in  having  a  weak 
nation  controlling  the  Straits? 

4.  State  arguments  for  and  against  internationalizing  the  Bos- 
phorus;  who  would  gain,  and  who  would  lose  if  this  were  done? 

The  Balkans. 
General  Relations. 
The  Balkan  countries  of  Serbia,  Bulgaria,  Greece,  and  Turkey  owe 
their  troubles  largely  to  the  following  conditions: 

(1)  The  natural  resources  of  this  region  are  not  particularly  good; 
although  there  are  some  metal  deposits  in  the  mountains  they  are  not 
developed  and  do  not  include  much  iron  and,  especially,  coal,  which 
is  by  far  the  most  important. 

(2)  Agricultural  conditions  are  not  favorable.  The  chief  diffi- 
culty arises  from  the  extreme  variability  of  the  rainfall.  For  a  few 
years  the  rainfall  is  abundant,  the  crops  are  good,  and  the  peasants 
prosper.  Then  come  a  few  bad  years  when  the  rain  is  insufficient, 
crops  on  the  poorer  lands  fail,  and  the  unfortunate  peasants  fall  into 
poverty  and  debt. 

(3)  Another  unfavorable  condition  is  the  thin  rocky  soil.  This  is 
due  partly  to  topography  and  partly  to  summer  droughts  followed  by 
floods.  A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  that  a  large  percentage  of  the 
region  is  made  up  of  hill  and  mountain  slopes.  These  retain  only  the 
coarser  soils.  Many  of  the  peasants  have  found  it  impossible  to  sup- 
port themselves  by  raising  crops  and  have  turned  to  flocks  and  herds. 
These  they  pasture  among  the  mountains,  for  grass  is  there  fairly 
plentiful.  In  such  a  country,  lawlessness  and  quarrels  are  very  likely 
to  arise.  Herdsmen  are  especially  prone  to  encroach  upon  the  rights 
of  others,  especially  in  times  of  insufficient  rain  when  the  grazing  is 
poor.  Then  they  take  their  famished  flocks  to  places  claimed  by  their 
neighbors.  Thus,  the  poverty  of  the  Balkans  tends  to  create  a  spirit  of 
unrest.  It  also  fosters  illiteracy,  for  the  people  can  not  afford  to  have 
schools.  In  addition  to  this,  the  poverty  arising  from  the  natural  con- 
ditions prevents  the  building  of  good  roads  and  railroads  and  thus 
keeps  the  people  apart  so  that  they  see  little  of  the  outside  world  and 
remain  separated  and  suspicious. 

(4)  Another  difficulty  in  the  Balkans  arises  from  the  fact  that 
the  country  is  cut  up  into  a  great  number  of  small  valleys  and 
basins.  Each  of  these  is  more  or  less  separated  from  its  neighbor 
by  mountain  ridges  and  hills.    To    connect    the   basins    by    roads 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  91 

would  be  hard  even  for  a  prosperous  people,  since  they  must 
either  cross  bare  rocky  slopes  or  follow  narrow  and,  in  many 
places,  difficult  valleys.  The  result  is  that  the  basins  are  isolated 
from  one  another.  Each  valley  looks  out  for  itself  and  knows 
little  of  its  neighbors. 

(5)  A  fifth  difficulty  of  the  Balkans  lies  in  the  fact  that  because  of 
their  division  into  mountain  valleys  and  basins  and  because  they  are 
hard  to  penetrate  they  have  become  the  refuge  of  many  different  races. 
Since  the  Balkans  form  the  bridge  between  central  Europe  and  western 
Asia,  the  races  are  drawn  from  both  regions.  Some  have  crossed  the 
Bosphorus  and  Dardanelles,  others  have  been  forced  in  from  the  plains 
on  the  north.  Still  others  have  migrated  from  the  south.  When  once 
one  of  those  races  becomes  lodged  in  the  mountains  the  conditions  of 
poverty  and  lack  of  roads  and  isolation  tend  to  preserve  its  old  habits, 
language,  religion,  and  prejudices.  In  consequence,  the  differences 
among  the  diverse  people  have  been  preserved  and  accentuated  rather 
than  wiped  out.  Thus,  it  comes  to  pass  that  the  Balkans  are  a  sad 
mixture  of  many  races. 

(6)  Finally, theBalkans  suffer  because  they  arein  the pathwayfrom 
central  Europe  to  the  East.  The  main  railroad  from  central  Europe 
passes  up  the  valley  of  the  Morava  River  to  Nish.  There  it  turns  up 
a  side  valley  and  crosses  into  the  valley  at  the  Maritsa  and  so  proceeds 
through  Bulgaria  to  Adrianople  and  thence  to  Constantinople.  Another 
branch  continues  south  from  Nish  and  down  the  valley  of  the  \'ardar 
to  Salonika.  These  two  lines  form  main  highways  of  communication 
to  the  Mediterranean  and  the  East.  Hence,  Germany  and  Austria  have 
been  eager  to  control  them.  That  was  one  reason  for  the  present  war. 
So.  to  the  difficulties  of  their  own  region  are  added  the  intrigues  of 
outside  nations.  Yet  the  ever-present  cause  of  the  trouble  of  the 
Balkans  is  found  in  their  rugged  relief  and  poor  soil  and  in  their 
separation  into  many  basins,  inhabited  by  a  poverty-stricken  people  of 
diverse  races,  antagonistic  one  to  another. 

Problems   on  the   Balkans 

In  order  to  appreciate  the  present  condition  of  the  Balkans  and  their 
historic  significance,  we  must  understand  the  effect  \\^hich  has  been 
produced  by  the  combination  of  the  six  conditions  mentioned  above. 

Go  to  the  encyclopedia,  to  Mill's  International  Geography,  and  to 
other  reference  books,  and  make  a  list  of  the  following  facts : 

(1)     The  races  that  inhabit  the  Balkan  area. 


92  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

(2)  The  languages  spoken  there. 

(3)  The  religions  or  great  branches  of  the  Christian  church  which 
there  have  a  foothold. 

(4)  The  wars  in  which  the  Balkans  have  had  a  part  since  1600 
A.  D. 

(5)  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  various  Balkan  countries. 

(6)  The  per  capita  value  6i  the  exports  and  imports. 

(7)  The  size  and  names  of  the  ten  chief  cities. 

Write  out  a  statement  of  the  way  in  which  the  six  geographic 
conditions  named  above  have  influenced  the  Balkans  in  respect  to 
these  seven  points.  Compare  the  Balkans  with  France  and  the  United 
States  in  these  seven  points. 

Spain 
I.     The  influence  of  the  Peninsular  Position  of  Spain. 

The  Iberian  Peninsula,  like  Italy  and  Korea,  is  a  natural  unit 
which  favored  the  development  of  an  individual  race  from  a  com- 
mon stock.  It  is  bounded  by  the  sea  except  on  the  north,  where 
the  lofty  Pyrenees  shut  it  oflF  from  continental  Europe.  Spain 
alone  may  be  considered  a  unit  because  of  the  wide  stretch  of  in- 
hospitable country  which  lies  along  the  Portugal  border.  The 
early  settlements  on  the  coast  and  lower  stretches  of  rivers  of 
Portugal  were  far  removed  from  the  settlements  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  even  today  the  intercourse  between  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal is  chiefly  by  sea. 

Within  the  boundaries  thus  marked  out  is  a  group  of  geographic 
conditions  to  which  the  inhabitants  must  adjust  themselves  and 
from  which  they  can  not  escape.  The  Pyrenees  with  only  three 
practical  passes  in  a  distance  of  250  miles  have  proved  a  more 
effective  barrier  than  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  and  the  quiet  waters 
of  the  Mediterranean.  The  coast  on  the  north  is  rocky  and  steep 
with  fiordlike  indentations  which  serve  as  harbors,  but  the  region 
adjoining  the  coast  is  mountainous  and  access  to  the  interior  from 
this  direction  difficult.  The  eastern  coast  has  alternate  stretches 
of  low  shore  and  rock  cliff,  and  the  southern  coast  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Guadiana  to  Gibraltar  is  bordered  by  flat  land.  Along  this 
stretch  of  shore  and  eastward  to  Cartagena  the  peninsula  is  easily 
accessible  from  Africa — a  geographic  fact  which  has  had  a  pro- 
found effect  on  the  development  of  Spain.  The  Roman,  Carthag- 
inian, and  Mohammedan  conquerors  came  by  sea  from  the  south 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  93 

and  the  east.  Spain  is  the  connecting  link  between  Europe  and 
Africa. 

Compare  the  boundaries  of  Spain  with  those  of  Germany,  of 
France,  of  Italy,  of  the  United  States.  What  political  advantages  do 
they  afford?  What  advantages  do  they  give  Spain  as  a  seafaring 
nation? 

Discuss  the  following  quotations:  "Africa  begins  at  the  Pyre- 
nees"; "In  almost  all  periods  of  history  either  the  masters  of  Spain 
have  borne  rule  in  Africa  or  the  masters  of  Africa  have  borne  rule 
in  Spain." 

Note  that  Spain  owns  Cueta  and  five  other  stations  on  the  Mo- 
rocco coast  and  that  Spain's  natural  relation  to  Morocco  and  her 
special  interests  in  that  country  were  recognized  by  the  Algeceras 
convention  of  1905. 

II.    The  Influence  of  a  High  Plateau. 

Although  bordered  by  the  sea,  Spain  has  the  features  of  a  conti- 
nental mass.  It  forms  a  huge  block  with  an  average  elevation  of 
about  2,500  feet,  terminating  seaward  in  steep  slopes.  It  is  girdled 
by  a  narrow  coastal  plain  except  on  its  northwest  and  northeast 
borders.  It  is  the  highest  country  of  Europe  in  average  altitude, 
and  its  capital  city  has  the  highest  altitude.  This  great  central 
table-land  with  ranges  of  east-west  mountains  affords  no  natural 
traffic  routes  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Mediterranean  or  from 
southern  Spain  to  other  countries  of  Europe.  The  surface  of  the 
plateau  is  cut  by  gorges  and  canyons,  and  only  a  few  rivers  are 
navigable  for  short  distances  from  the  sea.  Spanish  rivers  have 
been  described  as  having  "a  long  name,  a  narrow  channel,  and  very 
little  water."  Railroads  follow  circuitous  routes  with  steep  grades 
and  many  tunnels  and  cross  passes  at  elevations  4,000  to  6,000  feet 
above  sea  level. 

On  a  phy&ical  map  of  Spain  trace  the  course  of  the  principal 
rivers  and  note  their  rapid  descent  as  they  pass  from  the  plateau 
to  the  coastal  plain.  Trace  the  line  of  railroad  from  Valencia  to 
Madrid,  from  Lisbon,  Portugal,  to  Madrid.  What  does  it  indicate  as 
to  the  topography  and  accessibility  of  the  central  plateau? 

The  plateau  embraces  two  large  lowland  valleys,  Ebro  and 
Guadalquiver,  which  gave  rise  to  the  important  ancient  provinces 
of  Aragon  and  Seville.  Compare  the  number  and  size  of  the  cities 
within  these  valleys  with  those  on  the  adjoining  highlands. 


94  THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  EUROPE 

The  climate  of  Spain  presents  great  contrasts.  In  the  provinces 
bordering  the  Bay  of  Biscay  the  rainfall  is  abundant  and  the  tem- 
perature mild  throughout  the  year.  Outside  of  this  small  area  the 
climate  of  Spain  is  characterized  by  deficient  rainfall  and  extremes 
of  temperature.  On  the  southeast  coast  the  small  precipitation 
comes  in  winter,  and  irrigation  is  necessary  along  the  whole  Medi- 
terranean border.  The  coast  strip  from  Gibraltar  to  Almeria  has 
the  warmest  winter  climate  of  Europe,  and  this  region  and  the 
oases  in  Murcia  are  the  only  places  in  Europe,  where  the  date  palm 
ripens.  The  climate  of  the  central  plateau,  which  embraces  about 
five-sixths  of  Spain,  is  very  unlike  that  of  any  part  of  the  coast. 
On  this  great  bare  table-land  spring  and  autumn  are  usually  pleas- 
ant seasons,  although  cold  mists  of  spring  may  envelop  the  land 
for  days;  the  winters  are  cold  and  w^et;  the  summers  are  warm 
and  dry.  Cold  rains  and  snows  which  last  short  periods  give  to 
the  plateau  a  cheerless  aspect  in  winter.  In  summer,  hot  days 
followed  by  cold  nights  and  long  periods  without  rain  or  even 
clouds  give  the  plateau  a  dried-out  and  sunburnt  appearance.  Vege- 
tation withers,  the  roads  are  deep  with  dust,  and  the  "air  for  weeks 
at  a  time  is  gray  and  hazy  with  dust. 

From  the  viewpoint  of  occupation  and  settlement  the  climatic 
elements  of  primary  importance  which  characterize  the  central 
plateau  are  deficient  rainfall  and  great  and  sudden  changes  of  tem- 
perature. The  topographic  feature  of  greatest  significance  is  the 
presence  of  valleys  within  the  plateau,  valleys  which  have  milder 
climate  than  the  adjoining  uplands.  The  natural  vegetation  on  the 
plateau  is  chiefly  grass  and  shrubs. 

Bearing  in  mind  the  rainless  summers  and  the  short  and  vari- 
able growing  season,  what  food  products  would  you  expect  to  find 
grown  on  the  plateau?  What  parts  of  Spain  produce  grain,  fruit, 
animal  products?  To  what  extent  and  in  what  parts  of  Spain  is 
irrigation  practised? 

What  is  the  location  of  the  three  provinces  having  the  smallest  popu- 
lation per  square  mile?  How  many  of  the  ten  largest  cities  of  Spain 
are  accessible  to  seagoing  ships?  Note  the  position  of  Madrid  with 
reference  to  agricultural  and  mining  regions  and  convenient  routes  of 
transportation.    Has  its  location  any  geographic  advantages? 

One-fourth  of  the  productive  soil  of  Spain  is  natural  grasslands 
unsuitable  for  agriculture.    To  what  extent  is  Spain  a  sheep-pro- 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  EUROPE  cjs 

ducing  country?  A  characteristic  feature  of  plateau  life  is  the 
periodic  mig-ration  of  herds  from  highlands  to  lowlands  in  winter, 
returning  to  the  highlands  in  summer.  Is  this  necessary  or  merely 
a  custom?  Why  have  stringent  laws  governing  this  migration 
been  enacted?  What  conflicting  interests  have  the  herdsman  and 
the  agriculturist? 

The  inhabitants  of  Spain,  with  unimportant  exceptions,  consti- 
tute a  racial  unit  but  not  a  linguistic  unit.  Basque,  Castilian,  and 
Catalonian  languages  are  spoken.  Castilian  is  spoken  by  the  pla- 
teau people  and  has  become  the  official  and  widespread  language. 
Catalonian  is  the  language  of  the  Ebro  Valley  and  of  the  eastern 
coast.  Basque  is  the  language  of  the  region  near  the  junction  of 
the  Cantabrian  and  Pyrenees  Mountains. 

From  an  encyclopedia  or  other  reference  work,  find  in  what  re- 
spects these  languages  differ.  On  a  physical  atlas  note  the  loca- 
tion of  these  language  groups.  Have  geographic  factors  been  in- 
fluential in  the  development  of  these  languages?  Note  the  posi- 
tion of  the  little  republic  of  Andorra,  which  has  maintained  its 
independence  for  a  thousand  vears. 


REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

A.  General  works. 

1.  Military    Geology    and    Topography,    Yale    University    Press,    New 

Haven,  1918. 
Chapter  VIII  of  this  text  discusses  the  relative  independence  of 
various  countries  as  regards  raw  mineral  materials. 

2.  Industrial    and    Commercial    Geography,    by    J.    Kussell    Smith, 

Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  914  pp. 
A  standard  text  dealing  with   trade  routes  and  the  source  and 
nature  of  materials  for  manufacture. 

3.  Physical    and    Commercial    Geography,   by   Gregory,   Keller,    and 

Bishop.     Ginn  &  Co.,  469  pp. 
This  book  discusses  the  relation  of  man  to  his  natural  environ- 
ment and  the  geographic  influences  on  trade. 

4.  Topography  and  Strategy  in  the  War,  by  D.  W.  Johnson,  Henry 

Holt  &  Co.,  New  York,  1917. 
This    book   discusses    the    meaning    of    favorable     and    unfavorable 
topography  from  a  military  standpoint. 

5.  Civilization  and  Climate,  by  Ellsworth  Huntington.     Yale  University 

Press,  New  Haven,  1915. 
A  discussion  of  the  part  played  by  climate  in  giving  energy  to  some 
parts  of  the  world  especially  western  Europe. 

B.  Europe  as  a  whole. 

1.  The  Continent  of  Europe,  by  L.  W.  Lyde,  Macmillan  Co.,  Lon- 

don, 446  pp.,  1913. 

2.  The  Frontiers  of  Language  and  Nationality  in  Europe,  by  Leon 

Dominian,  New  York,  1917. 

3.  Oxford   Geographies,  vol.  3,   Europe,  by  F.  D.  Herbertson,  Ox- 

ford University  Press,   HI  pp.,   1909. 

C.  Countries  of  Europe. 

1.  Central  Europe,  by  Joseph  Partsch,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  258  pp., 

1903. 

2.  Britain  and   British   Seas,  by   H.    J.    Mackinder,    D.    Appleton    & 

Co.,  (World  Series). 

3.  Western    Eurooe    and    the    Mediterranean,    bv    E.    Reclus.    D.    Ao- 

pleton  &  Co.  (World  Series;. 

4.  Scandinavia   and   Arctic    Region,   by   Clement    R.    Markham,    D. 

Appleton  &  Co.  (World  Series). 

5.  Russian    Europe,    by     Prince     Kropatkin,     D.     Appleton    &    Co. 

(World  Series). 

6.  The  Nearer  East,  by  D.  G.  Hogarth,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  (World 

Series). 

7.  Belgium,    its    Institutions,    Industries  and  Commerce,  Minist.  de 

I'Indust  et  Travail,  St.  Louis  Fair  Edition,  528  pp.,  1904. 

8.  Belgium  and  the  Belgians,  by  Cyril  Scudamore,  Blackwood,  362 

pp.,  1901. 

9.  Bulgaria  and  her  People,  by  Will  S.  Munroe,  Page  410  pp.,  1914. 

10.  Denmark    and   the    Danes,   by   W.    J.    Harvey   and    C.    Reppien, 

Potts,  New  York,  346  pp.,  1915. 

11.  Handbook  of  Northern  France,  by  W.  M.  Davis,  Harvard  Uni- 

versity  Press,    Cambridge,    1918. 

12.  Hungary  and  the  Hungarians,  by  W,  B.   F.   Bovill,  New  York, 

352  pp.,  1908. 

13.  Austria-Hungary,  by  Geoffrey  Drage,  London,  846  pp.,  1909. 

14.  Sweden,  2  vols.,  edited  by  Gunnar  Andersson. 

15.  Sweden  and  its   People  and   its   Industries,   edited  by  G.   Lund- 

borg,  Stockholm,  1904. 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

OVERDUE.  °    "^    "^"^    SEVENTH     DAY 


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fWr 


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(402s) 


P8^308 


C,-I 


UhUVERsrrY  of  caufornia  library 


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